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Title: The Middle Game in Chess, Third Edition
Date of first publication: 1938
Place and date of edition used as base for this ebook:
  London: G. Bell & Sons, 1938 
Author: Eugene Alexandrovich Znosko-Borovsky (1884-1954)
Translator: Julius du Mont (1881-1956)
Date first posted: 1 July 2007
Date last updated: 1 July 2007
Project Gutenberg Canada ebook #13

This ebook was produced by: Dr Andrew Templeton




Transcriber's note: This ebook uses a system developed by
John Mamoun and Distributed Proofreaders to display chess
diagrams using ASC II characters. The chess pieces are:

  R  =  Rook
  Kt =  Knight
  B  =  Bishop
  Q  =  Queen
  K  =  King
  P  =  Pawn

Black pieces have a # symbol to the left of them, while
white pieces have a ^ symbol to the left of them.




                            THE MIDDLE GAME
                               IN CHESS

                                  By

                         EUGENE ZNOSKO-BOROVSKY

                             Translated by
                              J. Du Mont




                                 LONDON
                           G. BELL & SONS, LTD
                                  1938




                                PREFACE


A third edition of Znosko-Borovsky's pioneer work, _The Middle Game in
Chess_, having been sold out, the question of a reprint became urgent.

An artist in the true sense of the word, the author was not satisfied
with a mere reprint of the work as it stood, successful though that has
been. Instead of this line of least resistance, he set out to write an
entirely new book, in which the experience and concentrated thought of
the last twelve years have found a happy expression.

The really outstanding positions from the old book have been retained,
but treated in a manner far more concise and easy to comprehend.

At the same time, new and profound ideas are illustrated by positions
from the very latest master practice.

True to the pioneer spirit, which is perhaps the most striking feature
of the author's character, he gives his readers, in Chapter I of Part
II, a lucid exposition of those bugbears of the average player, the
transition stages between Opening and Middle Game and between Middle
Game and End Game.

For the first time in the history of chess literature, this important
subject finds adequate and authoritative treatment.

My thanks are due to my friends F. W. Allen and D. Castello for reading
the proofs.

                                                             J. DU MONT





                                CONTENTS


                         PART I. GENERAL REMARKS

I THE MATERIAL BASIS OF THE GAME
   1 The Elements: Space, Time, Force
   2 The Pieces and their Management: The Pawns, The King, The Other
Pieces
   3 The Co-ordination of the Elements as the Basis
of Chess

II IDEAS IN CHESS
   1 Objects to follow and how to attain them
   2 Threats

III STRATEGY AND TACTICS
   1 Preliminary and Inner Analysis of a Position
   2 The Position as a Whole
   3 Construction and Execution of the Plan
   4 Tactical Possibilities


                        PART II. THE MIDDLE GAME

I THE STAGES OF THE MIDDLE GAME
   1 Between the Opening and the Middle Game
   2 Between Middle Game and End Game

II SUPERIORITY IN POSITION
   1 Superiority in the Various Elements
   2 Various Means of Exploiting an Advantage

III INFERIOR POSITIONS
   1 Inferiority in Different Elements
   2 Various Means of Remedying Inferiority in Position

IV EVEN POSITIONS
   1 Combination of the Elements
   2 Positions without Distinctive Features
   3 Upsetting the Balance
   4 Counter-Action


CONCLUSION


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE POSITIONS




                         PART I. GENERAL REMARKS


                    I. THE MATERIAL BASIS OF THE GAME


                            1. THE ELEMENTS


_(a) Space_


A game of chess is contested within a strictly geometrical space,
namely, a square board sub-divided into 64 squares of equal size. There
is no physical difference at all between any of these squares, their
colour being only a matter of convenience, making them easier to survey.

Yet their respective location on the chessboard affects their individual
importance. This distinction becomes evident when we compare the squares
situated on the edge of the board with those in the centre. The centre
squares are, for all practical purposes, at an equal distance
from the corners of the board; in consequence it is easy to support from
there any point that may be attacked or, conversely, to initiate an
attack wherever opportunity offers. In practice, whoever controls the
centre has the command of the whole board.The centre squares being
surrounded by other squares, any piece posted there radiates power in
every direction, whereas its effectiveness is considerably less if
placed near the edge of the board, as there it lacks at least one side
for its radiation; in the corner it is even cut off from two sides.

The less radiation a piece possesses, the smaller is its power.
Therefore pieces gain in strength by approaching the centre; they are
strongest when posted there. Every piece has theoretically an absolute
and constant value; but in practice its effective value varies according
to the square it occupies. It is therefore of very real advantage to
obtain control of the centre.

It must not be assumed that the best tactical plan is to place all one's
pieces in the centre, thus rendering them as powerful as possible. This
would only lead to the forces facing four fronts instead of only one as
in the initial position. In addition numerous pieces massed within a
small space would obstruct each other and become less instead of more
powerful. Finally, our task is not only to occupy strong squares, but
equally to guard our own weak squares against intrusion by the enemy.

It may be said that the occupation of a centre square by placing a piece
upon it is not always necessary: it is at times sufficient merely to
control it, thereby preventing its occupation by a hostile unit. Actual
occupation is only of value if it is more or less permanent.

Apart from the small centre of 4 squares, we can speak of a wider centre
comprising the 16 squares nearest the middle of the chessboard.

One could while the time away by making a valuation of each square
starting from the small centre, where the value is 36, down to the
corners, where it dwindles to 23. These valuations, however, could at
best be of interest to the mathematician; the practical player only
values ideas.

The lines which are formed by various sequences of squares can be
divided into two main groups:

  I. Vertical (files) and horizontal (ranks).
  II. Diagonals.

The last named have the distinctive feature that they comprise squares
of one colour only. For this reason a Bishop which moves diagonally
cannot control the whole chessboard but only half of it: hence its
limited power. Diagonals are of varying length: the longest comprises 8
squares, the shortest only 2. All other lines, vertical and horizontal,
always contain the same number of squares, namely, 8.

From any square, in the centre or otherwise, there are always 14 squares
on lines of the first group.

The maximum number of squares on diagonals, namely 13, is available from
each of the 4 centre squares. This number is smaller the farther we get
from the centre, the minimum being 7 from any outside square. We must
therefore conclude that the diagonal is the weakest line on the
chessboard. It is of practical importance to realize the strength of a
diagonal which is about to be occupied. A line affects the power of a
piece in the same way as does a square.

If the importance of a line necessarily depends on its length, it
depends even more so on the part of the chessboard which it traverses.
It is the strength of the squares of which it is composed which
determines the value of a line. A line near the edge of the board has
not the same importance as a line near the centre. We increase the power
of our pieces by placing them on important lines, and therefore it is
important to occupy such lines.

It is clear that the weakest lines are the outside ranks and files. But
from a practical point of view the last ranks and files but one, forming
the girdle QKt2--KKt2--KKt7--QKt7 must be considered the most
vulnerable; the reason is to be found in the fact that the outside ranks
and files are protected on one side, so to speak, by the absence of
further squares which makes them immune from a turning movement.

Ranks and files differ, in the main, in their direction. This
distinction is of the greatest import, as in a normal game of chess
there are only two adversaries.

As the forces are marshalled on horizontal lines, the front of each army
is prepared to sustain and repel assaults on vertical lines, which are
the lines of attack. Thus a number of ranks belong wholly to one camp or
the other; others provide the field of battle.

The case of the files is entirely different; in each one of these there
are squares which are in closer proximity than the others to one or the
other of the players. Hence their character is diametrically opposed to
that of the ranks. K3 and K6 are identical in every respect, but K3
belongs to White and K6 to Black. From the point of view of the players
one is neutral, the other active. He protects the one whilst attacking
the other. The file is active whilst the rank is neutral. With each
square on a file activity goes on increasing, but on reaching the fifth
we assume the initiative and start the attack with all the attending
risks.

We cannot allow an enemy piece to settle down within our lines, as, for
instance, on our third rank; at the same time we try to occupy
corresponding squares in the enemy's camp. It is of great advantage to
us if one of our pieces, having reached such an advanced position, can
be maintained there; if it is driven back we have in most cases only
wasted time.

Thus we perceive that in addition to the value of each square on an
empty board, there is another and different valuation depending on the
disposition of the two armies; we shall see that further variations
occur according to the relative position of the pieces at any given
moment. As the squares influence the pieces, in the same way do the
pieces affect the value of the squares, which value varies consequently
with every move. We must acquire a clear perception of the difference
between the constant and the variable value of the squares, which is of
the utmost importance for the proper handling of a game of chess. It is
easy enough to remember the first; but it is far more difficult
correctly to assess the changes which are constantly occurring. But if
insufficient attention is given to this matter, and one adheres blindly
to the constant and preconceived valuation, it will not be noticed in
time when the usually strong and sound has become weak and precarious.

Although our chessboard is an ideal square--and the lines thereon are
perfectly regular--this space in which the chessmen do battle is not
altogether similar to spaces which we find in geometry or in everyday
life. It is a strange world, subject to its own peculiar laws.

Supposing you wish to travel from KR1 to KR7, you will remember what you
have been taught at school, namely, that the straight line is the
shortest distance between two given points, and you will follow the R
file and accomplish the journey in six moves. But if your King should
choose to travel diagonally in a broken line KR1-K4-KR7 he will also
arrive at his destination in six moves. The number of squares is the
deciding factor, not the length of the journey.

Geometrical theorems (such as the square of hypothenuse) are not valid
on the chessboard. Take the right angle QR4--Q4--Q1, and you will see that
each side QR4 to Q4, Q4-Q1, and Q1-QR4 comprises four squares.

The possibility of employing with the same degree of effectiveness lines
visibly different in length is of great importance, for, in consequence,
it becomes possible to aim at several points at the same time, which is
the basis of numerous combinations. Let us examine the following
position (Diag. 1):


                               DIAGRAM 1

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #K |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                             Study by Rti


Black has played ... P-R4; how is it possible to reach this pawn? It
seems out of the question, as the white King is two squares behind. The
game to all appearances is irrevocably lost. And yet it yields but a
draw. It is unbelievable, yet it is so.

Instead of playing K-R7, following up the pawn on the same file, White
plays on the diagonal 1 K-Kt7, P-R5; 2 K-B6. If now 2 ... P-R6; 3 K-K7
protecting his QBP on the next move and queening it in two more moves.
If instead 2 ... K-Kt3; then 3 K-K5, threatening 4 K-Q6, again guarding
his QBP. Therefore 3 ... KxP; after which 4 K-B4, P-R6; 5 K-Kt3,
intercepting the black pawn.

The diagonal enabled the white King to stop the hostile pawn, which he
could not have done by pursuing it on the file, for on the diagonal he
was approaching his own pawn.

In this study the importance of a diagonal is clearly demonstrated, but
equally so, the importance of the centre, for from here both flanks can
be threatened at the same time. In this way we qualify, to a certain
extent, what was said about the weakness of a diagonal. At least in the
case of the King and the Queen (which can move on a rank, a file or a
diagonal), the diagonal in away unites the characteristics of vertical
and horizontal lines.

It is essential to become acquainted and perfectly familiar with these
peculiarities of the chessboard. They possess not only theoretical
interest, but practical importance as well. How many lost games have
been due to
ignorance of them! How many more to their neglect!


                               DIAGRAM 2

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | ^K |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Q |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #K | #P |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Yates; _Black:_ Marshall
                       Carlsbad Tournament, 1929


They must become a player's second nature and emerge subconsciously
whenever they are needed.

In the position shown in Diag. 2, White, instead of choosing the
shortest way to win, namely, 1 Q-B2, decided on another line of play
which he deemed to be just as safe: 1 K-B4, P-Kt8(Q); 2 QxQ _ch_, KxQ; 3
K-Kt4. Black's RP falls and White's BP cannot be stopped as the adverse
King is not within the "square."

Great was White's surprise when Black, instead of the expected 3 ...
K-B7; played 3 ... K-Kt7; occupying another diagonal from where he can
reach the adverse BP, because White must lose a move capturing Black's
RP, which otherwise, protected by its King at Kt7, would reach the
queening square.

A player cannot be expected at all times to think out the correct line
of play: he must have the feeling for it. To that end the chessboard and
all its peculiarities must be perfectly familiar to him and hold no
secrets. It would be a good thing if every amateur could, without sight
of the board, visualise all its lines and angles with a clearness and
precision that would enable him, without thinking, to determine the
colour of every square and the rank, file and diagonal on which it is to
be found.


_(b) Time_


It is no easy task to speak of things that are neither visible nor
tangible.

As regards space, we have the chessboard, but time in reality represents
but an idea and is, in theory, unlimited. On the restricted space of the
chessboard this leads to strange happenings.

If in chess the unit of space is the square, that of time is the move.
As in the case of the squares, the moves are always equal, alternating
with strict regularity between the two players. Yet in making a move it
is possible to lose time, which might be of paramount importance. To
lose a _tempo_, it is sufficient to take two moves in executing a
manoeuvre which could have been carried out in one. Advancing a piece
and moving it back again also loses time. It is tantamount to losing a
strong square and surrendering it to the opponent.

There is another distinction: some moves are voluntary, others are
forced. If there is perfect freedom in the choice of move and a wide
range to choose from, the stronger the moves are likely to be. If moves
are compulsory, it is a sign of weakness both of the position and of the
pieces. Starting from the initial position with a limited number of
possible moves, the object of the mobilisation is to obtain different
positions with an ever-increasing number of available moves. Whenever
this number begins to grow less it is a sure sign that the position is
deteriorating and that the pieces are becoming correspondingly less
effective.

Although moves are equal in point of time, it is important that they
should be made at the right moment. The same move, played at different
times, has entirely different values. The order of the moves is of the
utmost importance. Not unlike the lines formed by squares, we have
series of moves.

Chess is not played move by move, but in well-considered series of
moves, which should meet all requirements, namely, freedom for the
player, constraint for the adversary; proper timing of each individual
move; use of the maximum power of each piece at all times.

The more numerous the moves conceived as one series, the wider the range
of their possible variations and the greater their effective strength. A
move which initiates such a sequence of moves is the move of a master.
If it leads to nothing it is of no value; you must be thankful if it
does not ruin your game.

We must also pay attention to another point, namely, whether our moves
are active or passive. A real offensive begins when our threats are
ahead of the opponent's defensive measures.

A game of chess can, on broad lines, be divided into three main phases:
the opening, the middle game, and the end game.

Our primary object is to enter upon the middle game, which is the very
life of chess, without lagging behind our opponent. If we drift into a
middle game without having developed the whole of our forces, our game
will be dominated by the adversary and in consequence our pieces will be
weaker than his, and their freedom of action will be restricted. As in
actual warfare, faulty mobilisation can be put right but rarely, and
then only with difficulty.

Whoever starts the middle game with an advance in development and with
the command of the centre, has every reason to hope for ultimate
success.

Success will come to him whose end game represents the realisation of
what has been achieved in the middle game. It is here, above all, that
the factor of time becomes paramount. Speed plays a decisive part, for
it might turn a pawn into a Queen. In the middle game time has as much
value as space.


_(c) Force_


Space and time are the conditions in which chess is played. The active
element is force. Force reveals itself in space and time, combines the
two in its movements, and is itself, for its effective application,
conditioned by them.

We have established a unit of time and a unit of space. Is there equally
a unit of force? If so, is that unit subordinate to a particular
principle? Were the answer in the negative the game itself would lose in
balance and its laws would become arbitrary.

In examining the pieces which represent the element of force in chess,
we shall find this unit. These pieces, one and all, obey the same
principle; they are alike in all essentials. There are, it is true, some
strange variations: e.g., the King cannot be captured, for the game is
lost when he cannot avoid capture; a pawn can be turned into a Queen.
But the difference between the pieces rests in their particular ways of
moving; it can be stated that therein lies the only distinction between
them.

The power of any piece depends on its speed, or, in other words, its
power to control or threaten a certain space in a certain time. The
greater the space and the shorter the time, the greater the speed of the
piece, and consequently its power.

Force, as applied to chessmen, is therefore expressed in terms of time
and space. Could there be a more eloquent demonstration of the logical
consistency which forms the basis of chess?

As we have seen, the unit of space is the square; that of time is the
move. In the same way we have a unit of force, namely, the motion in one
move from one square to the next. In principle this unit is the pawn,
although allowance must be made for the pawn's peculiarities, namely,
the initial double move, the capture on a diagonal, and queening.

As we have said, the real difference between the pieces lies in their
respective speeds: and we find in chess a curious state of affairs which
is peculiar to that game. If a piece attacks another, it is not the
weaker but the stronger one which has to give way. A light ball will
always be driven back by a heavier one. In warfare, also, a more heavily
armed aeroplane will force a less fortunate opponent to retire.

Another of the pawn's peculiarities is that it cannot retreat and, as
each side possesses eight pawns, they form an arm distinct from the
other forces.

As a unit amongst the pieces, one could take the King which, in one
move, can occupy any adjacent square; the King's move is the forerunner
of the moves of all other pieces which command files, ranks and
diagonals in any direction. The moves of the strongest piece on the
board, the Queen, are merely an extension of the moves of the King, the
weakest piece in chess.

For their moves the pieces use only lines existing on the chessboard,
and in their variety they remain strictly logical, the result of the
evolution of the chess move in the course of many centuries of chess
history. One could imagine in chess absurd and fantastic moves,
independent of any set laws; indeed such moves have been tried in the
history of chess. But in the final form of the game the uniformity and
logic of its moves cannot be doubted. The only piece which seems to
have preserved something fantastic in its gait is the Knight. But a
closer analysis will show that the Knight's move is based on the same
principles as those of other pieces.

We have seen the relationship between the moves of the King and the
Queen. The Queen's moves combine those of Rook and Bishop; in other
words it covers all the lines on the chessboard, vertical, horizontal
and diagonal.

Concerning the Knight's move, which at first sight appears to be
entirely arbitrary, it is very interesting to note, upon reasoned
examination, that it conforms to the general scheme of things. Nor will
it be devoid of practical usefulness to recognise this fact.


                                FIG. A

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    | ^Kt|    |    | #R |    |    | ^Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | O  |    |    |    | O  |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | O  |    | O  |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | X  |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


[TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: This particular diagram shows three arrow lines all
starting from White's K2 (X) and pointing to each of the three pieces.]

If we examine Fig. A we shall see that the Rook's move there illustrated
geometrically bisects the angle formed by the Knight's moves
K2-KB4-KKt6-KR8 and K2-Q4-QB6-QKt8. Thus the similarity of the Knight to
the other pieces is manifest, as is also the regularity of its move
which, at stated intervals, passes through a full square, after cutting
across two intervening squares. It thus becomes apparent that the
Knight's move is not crooked at all: it can move in a straight line, any
desired distance across the board.

Fig. B shows how the Bishop on the long diagonal bisects the angle
formed by two Knights moving from QR1 to Q7 and KB4 respectively.


                                FIG. B

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^B |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | O  |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | O  |    |    | O  |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | O  |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | X  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


[TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: This particular diagram shows three arrow lines all
starting from White's QR1 (X) and pointing to each of the three pieces.]

The two angles formed by the Bishop's move on the long diagonal from QR1
and the Rook's moves QR1-QR8 and QR1-KR1 respectively, are again
sub-divided, although in this case not equally by the Knight's moves
QR1-QKt3-QB5-Q7 and QR1-QB2-K3-KKt4.

There can be no doubt that the Knight's move is closely related to the
moves of all the other pieces and is based on similar principles.


                  2. THE PIECES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT


There are in chess two distinct groups of forces, namely, the pawns and
the pieces proper.

The pieces represent the dynamic element of the game whilst, normally,
the pawns have a static tendency. Both have to fulfil different tasks
according to their power and individual capacity.


_(a) The pawns_


The pawns differ from the pieces in two essential points: one is their
weakness, or in other words their lack of speed, the other being their
inability to retrace their steps.

Whereas the pieces can always return to a square which they were
compelled to leave, a pawn, once started on its journey, can never turn
back. For this reason a player must exercise the most extreme care in
advancing his pawns. The eight pawns occupy all the files and show the
enemy an unbroken front; but once they are under way, their original
front is left bare and allows the enemy to penetrate freely into the
inner lines. Having once pierced the line of pawns, the opponent is no
longer obliged to manoeuvre vertically, as is the case in the initial
position; he can attack in all directions, which is extremely dangerous,
as such attacks are the hardest to resist and to repel.

Therefore the pawns, used collectively, are the defensive force _par
excellence_.

The rupture of their line or its disappearance, which is part of the
opponent's plan, must have fatal consequences; defence is therefore
their first consideration.

To this end the best position for the pawns is the horizontal line, for
in that case the whole of the rank in front of them is guarded, which
renders any attack difficult to carry out. The pawns are in a position
easily to protect each other: any pawn, which may be attacked, simply
moves up one square. If, as in the case of the castled position, the
King is behind the pawns, a pawn must be attacked twice before it is
really threatened. On the other hand, any advance by pawns weakens the
pawn position, and this for several reasons, of which the most important
is that, if any pawn moves forward, two neighbouring squares are
weakened, as they have permanently lost the protection of that pawn.
These squares represent weaknesses which can be exploited by the enemy;
the most vulnerable point is a "hole", as for instance KKt3, when the
pawns are placed at KB3, KKt2 and KR3. Pawns, when posted on the same
rank, can easily evade most attacks by mutual protection, which is
effected by a simple advance of one square by one of the pawns. On the
other hand, a pawn, once advanced, leaves the pawn which is protecting
it weak and backward, for that pawn cannot easily be protected by
another.

If the pawn thus advanced is one of the King's field pawns (in the
castled position) it becomes itself weak, as it is liable to be
attacked: a pawn at KR3 can be attacked in two moves by the hostile
KKtP.

Many and varied are the types of attack, which can be made upon pawns.
The object may be to create a weak square, or to weaken an advanced
pawn, or to exploit the weakness of a backward pawn. For defensive
purposes also it is of great importance properly to diagnose weaknesses
in the pawn position, and to locate the most serious weakness both for
attack and defence.

The disposition of pawns on a diagonal, where they protect one another,
is also advantageous, provided the base of this chain of pawns is as far
away as possible from the hostile forces. For it is the base which will
be attacked, and if it is vulnerable, through being within striking
distance, it may be possible to destroy it, causing the whole chain to
crumble away. The same applies to a pawn-formation on two diagonals
forming an angle. An attack against the peak of the chain can also
become serious, as it may destroy a fortified outpost; in the case of a
"hill" formation on two diagonals (QR2, QKt3, QB4, Q5, K4, KB3; KKt2)
the break-up of the peak destroys the whole lay-out and leaves two short
pawn-chains. The greatest weakness, however, is the isolated pawn,
particularly when doubled: protection by other pawns is permanently
eliminated, and such pawns are at the mercy of enemy attacks. At the
same time it is possible for a doubled pawn to have a high defensive
value. Posted on an important file it commands the neighbouring squares
and prevents the occupation of four valuable squares by hostile pieces,
conversely securing these squares for its own pieces.

In addition, the doubling of a pawn opens a file which can be of the
greatest value if it can be occupied by the Rooks ahead of the
adversary. Nevertheless, the weakness of the doubled pawn remains; we
can only try to redeem it by gaining an advantage in another direction.

One of the distinctive features of chess is the combination of the
various elements, which renders the game interesting and rather
difficult; for it is an art in itself correctly to assess advantages as
against corresponding weaknesses. But in chess, we say it again, it is
impossible, except against bad play, to have everything for nothing: a
gain is nearly always attended by some loss of one kind or another. The
question is which of the two is of greater moment.

Essentially a defensive unit, the pawn can, thanks in the main to its
very weakness, become dangerous in attack. As it is an advantage to
exchange a pawn for a piece, the pieces must retreat before an attack by
pawns. The Queen may be as strong as eight pawns, but she must normally
retreat when attacked by one of them.

When the pawns have started an advance, the opposing pieces must deem
discretion the better part of valour and meekly retire. Such retreat
must be decided upon as early as possible, lest the attacking pawns
should gain too much time.

As soon as a pawn-attack can be foreseen, that part of the front should,
as far as possible, be denuded of pieces. Then the pawns will only have
the opposing pawns as the object of attack. Whilst this method is
difficult and takes time, it will allow the defender to be thoroughly
prepared. It happens but rarely that pawns can weaken the hostile pawn
position, the forces on either side being similar in every respect. It
is preferable to weaken the hostile pawn position by skillfully
manoeuvring the pieces, in order then to advance the pawns to the
assault of the weakened position.

Such an assault can have varied objects. First of all, there is the
break-through, the destruction of the enemy defences; or else merely the
occupation of weakened squares; or it may be the opening-up of lines by
means of pawn-sacrifices.

Owing to their small field of action, pawns are less suitable than
pieces for the occupation of an opponent's weak squares. On the other
hand, effective occupation by pawns is irrefutable and permanent: they
are therefore particularly well fitted to _fix_ a weakness, such as a
backward pawn. A player who has a backward pawn will do his utmost to
remedy the weakness; the best means to that end is to advance it. This
is best countered by placing a pawn in front of the backward pawn,
making its advance impossible.

If it is important thus to fix a weakness, it is also necessary to
blockade a strong pawn: the smaller the value of the blockader the
better, and a pawn is indicated for the purpose.

A passed pawn, even if isolated, is of the greatest potential value,
particularly if it is supported from the rear by a Rook, which helps its
advance. With each advance of the pawn the field of action of the Rook
widens and the freedom of the adverse pieces becomes more restricted.
The precise moment when an isolated pawn (from being weak) becomes
strong, is impossible to tell: here again it is a question of correct
positional judgment.

It is not enough to know that centre squares are stronger than outlying
ones, nor that a certain piece is more powerful than another: all that
may change in the course of the game: according to the peculiarities of
a position, normally strong squares may become weak, and weak pieces may
acquire an unsuspected and abnormal accession of strength. If we do not
make use of our opportunities, they will disappear, and a passed pawn,
on which we had built our fortunes, becomes gradually a pitiful and
helpless isolated pawn.

We must always recognise the weaknesses as well as the strong points in
our position; how they were brought about and how they can be
reinforced. But it would be of little use merely to acknowledge that our
position is inferior and to take the necessary steps to defend it: we
must strive to the utmost to transform the position, so that its
weakness may become strength. It depends to some extent on ourselves,
when we have, for instance, a weak Knight against a strong Bishop, to
alter the position in such a way that the Knight becomes more effective
than the Bishop. Precisely in this consists the real struggle in chess.


_(b) The King_


There is little to be said about the King in a treatise on the middle
game. Here the King is more or less inactive. In the end game, on the
contrary, when only a few pieces are left on the board and mating
threats are no longer to be feared, when even a pawn can become a Queen,
then the King can and should take an active part in the struggle. In the
middle game it is useless as well as bad tactics to expose the King to
the dangers of the battle: his own weakness renders the King helpless
when the opposing Queen goes berserk.

What can be expected of a King in the middle game? Not to get in the way
of his forces, and not to demand from them undue protection, which would
diminish their offensive value. That is why castling generally happens
early in the game: the King moves into safety, away from the strong
squares (which will be the concern of other pieces) where he will no
longer interrupt the liaison between the two Rooks. Generally speaking,
castling on the K side will be preferable. It is the normal procedure,
whereas castling on the Q side will generally have some special
significance; for in that case not only must the King make an additional
move in order to get into real safety, but the Queen must have made a
move, and castling on the Q side occurs therefore at a later stage.
Under normal conditions castling KR is preferable.

Wherever the King is placed, the position in his vicinity becomes
automatically weaker, for his presence attracts enemy attacks. If, in
the same sector, the King were not present, an attack there would not
have the same vigour, for the object of attack is naturally of less
importance, as, for instance, the gain of a pawn. But with the King
there, a mate might be the result and, to that end, no sacrifice could
be too great.

However, in chess, a loss in one direction is seldom unaccompanied by
some gain in another; in castling, for instance, the King, placed behind
his pawns, is generally in no need of further protection from them. Here
he can play a definitely active role; he might even support their
advance, or he can strengthen a hole formed by the advance of a pawn,
e.g., after PKKt3, the King can be posted at KKt2 and after P-KR3, he
can move to KR2 supporting the pawns thus advanced and releasing a piece
for some other important duty. But it seldom happens that the protection
of the King's field by a piece can be dispensed with, and we must decide
which piece to employ for the purpose, with the idea of limiting such
protection to a strict minimum. From this point of view a Kt at KB3 or a
B at KKt2 are indicated, for not only do they protect the King, but they
are able to take an active part in the game. A Knight at KB1 is,
defensively, quite as effective as at KB3, especially against a K side
attack, but it generally carries with it the drawback that this Knight
would remain entirely passive; it would take no active part in the
operations, thereby demonstrating the inferiority of the defender's
position.

The mate implies the termination of the contest, but a stalemate
position is its prelude. The King must not be allowed to remain in a
stalemate position, that is, without available moves, as then a check
would spell destruction. Only a born optimist would bank on his opponent
being unable to find a way, by means of unexpected sacrifices, of
inflicting this fatal check. Even a merely restricted King's position
should cause uneasiness when the squares around the King are threatened
by hostile pieces: therefore, in such cases, the opening up of files
and, perhaps even more so, of diagonals, must at any cost be avoided.

We may begrudge the expenditure of forces in the defence of this feeble
drone, but the safer his position, the more shall we be able to throw
our available forces without misgivings into a decisive attack. Nor
should we forget that, at a later stage, the King will come into his own
and will himself decide the fate of the battle. He will then no longer
be conscious of any inferiority and will act like any other piece,
claiming space, occupying strong squares, and joining in the play in the
centre. In the end game we must bring our King as quickly as possible
into the centre of the board; victory generally smiles upon him whose
King is the first to arrive in the centre.


_(c) The other pieces_


Two of the pieces which remain to be analysed, the Rook and the Bishop,
work on ranks and files, and diagonals respectively. In order to let
them deploy their power to the full it becomes necessary to open lines
for them. A Rook on a closed file is almost valueless, and frequently it
is worth a sacrifice to allow this powerful unit to enter into the field
of battle.

It is, however, not always easy to open a closed line, especially a
file. The chessboard is so formed that the files lead to the hostile
position and these files are occupied by our own pawns. The problem is
then to eliminate one or other of these. If an adverse pawn or piece
closes up a file, it is usually possible to exchange it, or to attack
the obstructing unit with one of lesser value; in the case of a hostile
pawn, we can attack it with one of our own and force it to leave the
file or be captured. But where one of our own pawns is in question,
which, in addition, may be blockaded, the problem at times defies
solution, and frequently only a sacrifice can achieve the desired end.

We must therefore always be on the look-out for a line that can be
opened, always remembering that it must be an important one, that the
opening of a line is of advantage to the stronger party, and that it
should be where the player's position is strongest.

If the position there is endangered or if our position is inferior, it
is better to keep it closed. What can be more alarming than to find
that, after having gone to much trouble in opening a line, it has only
benefited the adversary! In opening a line, therefore, we must make sure
that it will be to our own benefit.

But if the file in question is closed by our own passed pawn it is a
different matter. The Rook behind it becomes extremely powerful; under
its protection the pawn advances irresistibly, and with every move of
the pawn the Rook's field of action increases as does its power. The
case of the Bishop is different: if the diagonal is closed by a passed
pawn, this only hinders the Bishop: in advancing, the pawn loses the
protection of the Bishop. The Bishop proves a poor defensive piece in
such cases. The pawn may easily be lost but this is not always a
drawback, as the Bishop, now liberated, is able to exert its full power,
and this additional piece may decide the issue. In effect, for a pawn
lost, perhaps against our will, we have gained the use of a Bishop--a
favourable exchange.

As the opening of files for the Rooks is so troublesome one might ask
whether it would not be better to place the Rooks in front of the pawns,
thus avoiding the necessity for complicated manoeuvres. Unfortunately,
to post a Rook in front of the pawns exposes it to serious dangers: when
attacked, the Rook, with its pawns behind it, would find it difficult to
return to its own camp. The Bishop labours under no such difficulties:
it is sufficient to advance a pawn in order to open a diagonal for it.
If the B is at KKt3, P-KB3 provides an easy retreat. The contrary
obtains in the case of a Rook. Any pawn-advance would render its
position still more precarious. On the same square KKt3, the Rook would
only be worse off if a pawn were advanced to the same rank.

Another point to be remembered is that the power of the Rook is not
increased by advancing it. A Rook at K1 has the same power as a Rook at
K4. Here again the Bishop differs from the Rook in that its power
increases as it advances; not only that, but its effect changes in
character. A Bishop at K1 has no effect on the opposing camp, whereas
from Q4 it can attack both wings. At KKt2 the Bishop controls only the
long diagonal, whereas from K4 it commands two diagonals. It is
therefore quite safe to place a Bishop in front of the pawns, the more
so as, being of less value than the Rook, it has less to fear from enemy
attacks.

Whilst the Rook, when posted on a strong square on a centre file,
attacks the enemy centre, the Bishop can only do so from a flank. It is
most effective, however, when on a strong square in the centre,
attacking either flank, or, for instance, the castled King's position.

The Rook can exert its powers on the ranks as well as on the files, but
it has but seldom an opportunity of doing so in the middle game. Within
its own lines or in the centre, a Rook usually has little scope on a
rank; one or two pawn advances render it ineffective. Only a lateral
attack on a rank within the enemy lines holds out promise of success.
This refers particularly to the seventh rank. There the Rook attacks all
the pawns, and if these have moved forwards, the King himself is in
jeopardy.

Once a Rook is established on the seventh rank, it exerts its greatest
power: the reason is to be found in the fact that the pawns act forward
only, and therefore a pawn position is ill prepared to meet an attack
coming from the flank. This explains also why the Rook gains in strength
as the forces on the board begin to thin out towards the end game stage.
The Rook is at its best when attacking the pawns in an end game; it does
great execution, where the Bishop, on the whole, cuts a poor figure.
This can be explained by the fact that the lines of the Rook, the files
and the ranks form an impassable barrier for the King or the pawns,
whereas the Bishop's lines, the diagonals, can easily be crossed. A
diagonal cannot block the King, but a rank or file stops him completely.
In the middle game and on an open diagonal the Bishop is very powerful
and, at times, the equal of a Rook; but in the end game the Bishop, in
order to be really strong, must have the help of the other Bishop. The
two Bishops are then stronger than two Knights and they often hold their
own against Rook and Bishop.

As a defensive piece in an end game, the Bishop is always stronger than
a Knight, as it can stop a pawn at long range, which a Knight cannot do.

In order to illustrate the importance of lines in practical play, and
the use which Rooks and Bishops can and should make of them, we give a
position (Diag. 3) in which the critical square at White's K3, the
cutting point of the file K1-K8 and the diagonals KKt1-QR7 and QB1-KR6,
succumbs under the combined assault of Black's Queen, Rooks and Bishop.


                               DIAGRAM 3

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Q |    |    |    | #R |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    | ^P | #B | #B |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^B |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^R |    | ^Q | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

              _White:_ Collins; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                  Inter-club Tournament, Paris, 1937


With reference to the Knight we must first of all remember that it
cannot control any lines. This weakness is often its strength, because
it can exert its powers in positions in which other pieces cannot deploy
theirs: the Knight is particularly at home in restricted positions with
many pawns, which hinder the action of R and B, but cannot interfere
with the Knight's unruly capers. The Knight should seek to occupy a
strong square, if possible supported by a pawn, near the enemy lines.
Unlike the Rook or the Bishop, the Knight can attack the enemy only by
getting close to him: its best rank is the fifth. As the Knight acts in
eight directions, it frequently happens that two or three of these
directed towards the enemy are of practical use, whereas the Rook or
Bishop usually have only one. Thus the Knight can attack the centre and
the wing at the same time; posted at K5 it attacks QB6, Q7, KB7, KKt6.
From KB5 it would bear upon Q6, K7, KKt7, KR6--all of them important
squares. On account of its comparatively small value, the Knight only
fears an attack by pawns and, for that reason, it is of all pieces the
best adapted to provoke an advance by pawns: to prevent a Knight from
establishing itself on the fifth rank, the adversary has often to take
recourse to an otherwise perhaps undesirable pawn-advance (e.g., P-Kt3;
to prevent Kt-KB5).

Placed in front of the pawns the Knight need not fear enemy attacks nor
be concerned normally about possibilities of retirement; but it must
avoid the outside positions, where it is deprived of half its strength:
at R3 it has only four available squares and at R1 only two. On a strong
square in the centre, supported by a pawn, the Knight is frequently
equal to a Rook. It is clearly superior to a Bishop provided the Bishop
is of the colour opposite to that square.

As mentioned before, the Bishop is generally superior to a Knight in an
end game. But with the hostile pawns placed on squares of the opposite
colour, and therefore immune from attack by the Bishop, and with a
Knight placed on a square equally immune, then the Bishop is of little
value and the game is probably lost.

It may be added that, as a general rule, if the Bishop has little
freedom, the Knight will have correspondingly more scope. It is then a
matter of judgment to decide, for every position, which piece to
preserve; conversely, what kind of position you must seek to bring about
to give scope to a certain piece.

To conclude, we shall say a few words about the Queen. There is not much
to be said, as she combines the moves of both Rook and Bishop. It is
only necessary to point out a few peculiarities in order to indicate the
correct handling of the Queen.

Being able to move on a diagonal, the Queen, unlike the Rook, need not
be afraid of moving into the open; she can move with freedom outside the
pawn-formation. But this must not be done too early, as in that case the
Queen, lacking a real objective, might be harassed by the minor hostile
pieces: nevertheless we must realise that the Queen's proper place, like
the Knight's, is in front of the pawns in the centre of the board as her
full power is available only in that position. From there the Queen is
effective in three directions towards the enemy; but it is necessary
that the board should be, to an extent, denuded of forces. In the same
way as an ocean-going ship, the Queen needs open spaces: narrow and
restricted passages, where only a Knight can thrive, are not for her.

Posted away from the centre, the Queen acts only on a file or on a
diagonal, which is obviously a waste of her power; such a disposition
would only poorly demonstrate our skill in fully employing the power
inherent in our pieces.

We have so far spoken of the various chess pieces with reference to
their moves: later we shall see their effect in various positions, and
we shall learn how best to make use of their power and of their
peculiarities.


      3. THE CO-ORDINATION OF THE ELEMENTS AS THE BASIS OF CHESS


The game of chess comprises three elements: force, time and space, and
advantages in one or more of these decide the fate of the game. It is
rare indeed for a player to have the advantage in all three elements and
yet to fail in the end; such cases are exceptional. It is only to be
expected that victory should depend on advantages obtained in these
elements, and, whether we, want it or not, every move brings with it
some changes in them. We should see to it that these changes should be
to our advantage. If we do not heed this fact, we could easily drift
into a manifestly inferior position in spite of any brilliant ideas
which we may have.

There are always outward signs which point to danger or to salvation: if
we do not understand them or if we pay no heed to what they say, they
will take their revenge: it is then that the mathematics and the logic
of the game get their own back against abstract ideas.

It is desirable to have an advantage in all three elements: it creates a
feeling of quiet confidence, which is favourable to the full use of our
imagination. But, though this may be our aim, it happens but seldom. We
may add here that such a sweeping advantage hardly ever obtains even in
the moment of victory, when usually some decisive detail counts for more
than the whole lay-out of the position.

The various elements are nearly always in a state of flux: an advantage
in one element is, most likely, set off by a disadvantage in another.
Their just appreciation is essential, for only then can we arrive at a
proper valuation of a position and decide which side has the better
game. To that end we must learn to distinguish advantages in each of the
three elements.

This is not difficult in the case of force: the pieces are counted and
whoever has more than the other has the advantage. If we have a Queen
against a Knight our superiority is obvious. If we have a Rook for a
Bishop we can also feel satisfied, unless, in either case, we have to
deal with a sacrifice.

In the same way there is no difficulty in deciding which side is
superior in space: whoever occupies all the important squares in the
centre, commands the greater amount of territory, and the player can
feel satisfied whose pieces have the greater freedom of action. It is
almost an arithmetical sum and leaves as little room for argument: a
simple calculation makes the real value of the position clear.

The essence of time is less obvious. In the opening it is still easy to
perceive which side has developed better, but in the middle game, when
the moves already made are a thing of the past and half forgotten, of
what use is an advantage in time and how can we become aware of it?

Yet here also a simple calculation can guide us. It is worth while to
make it with special care: the more obscure an advantage in time, the
more important is it to realise it.

If we examine the position in Diag. 4 we find that White has made 3
moves with his pawns, 2 with his Knights, 3 with his Bishops, 1 with the
King (castling) or 9 moves in all. Against that Black has made 4 moves
with his pawns, 3 with his Knights, 2 with his Bishops, 1 with the King
(castling) and 1 with the Rook, in all 11 moves. In other words, Black
has gained 2 moves.

A player who has such an advantage in one element would do well to
realise it, and to try to improve on it, or at least not to lose ground
in that respect, and to select his moves accordingly.


                               DIAGRAM 4

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | #P |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Kt| #P |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | #B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | ^B | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^Kt|    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Chajes
                             New York, 1913


If, on the contrary, a player is not conscious of this advantage, which
is in fact something concrete and tangible, he runs the risk of its
being frittered away and of seeing his position, from being slightly
superior, changing to one of marked inferiority.

Let us examine the same game between Capablanca and Chajes 10 moves
later and, to our amazement, we shall see that the position (Diag. 5)
has undergone a radical change. In analysing the moves which have been
played we shall easily ascertain that White has made 14 moves and Black
only 12, White being thus 2 moves ahead after being 2 moves behind 10
moves earlier. In the last 10 moves he must in some way have gained 4
moves.


                               DIAGRAM 5

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q | #R | #B | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    |    | #Kt| #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    | ^P |    | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | #Kt|    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    | ^B |    |    | ^Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^B |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


If it is easy to ascertain gains and losses in one particular element,
it is at times exceedingly difficult to appreciate correctly the
differences between the several elements, when there has been a gain in
one of them and a loss in another.

In the case of "force," there is little difficulty for we know very well
the value of the different pieces.

A gambit only means giving up material in exchange for rapid
development; a sound sacrifice is one which brings about a sufficient
advantage in another element; it is unsound when that advantage proves
insufficient.

It would not be incorrect to say that a sound sacrifice is never a
sacrifice at all. It is a very profitable exchange, or barter, much in
the same way as trading with savages used to be in the early days: they
were given glittering objects of no value in return for valuable
commodities.

The same relation obtains between time and space and we can the better
appreciate a position if we recall this fact.

As an example let us take the position in Diag. 6 after the 6th move of
a French Defence, thus: 1 P-K4, P-K3; 2 P-Q4, P-Q4 3 Kt-QB3, KtKB3; 4
B-Kt5, B-K2; 5 P-K5, KKt-Q2; 6 BxB, QxB. We perceive at once that White
has gained


                               DIAGRAM 6

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R | #Kt| #B |    | #K |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P | #Kt| #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q | ^K | ^B | ^Kt| ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 


space: is his position in consequence much superior? No one would assert
that it is, otherwise this variation would no longer be adopted by
Black. But Black has a compensating advantage in time, represented by
one move.

It can be said that White has gained space but lost time, or that he has
sacrificed time in order to gain space or, finally, that he has effected
an exchange between the two elements. Whether the gain outweighs the
loss it is difficult to say. Sometimes it is possible to find very clear
indications as to whether it is so; sometimes it is a question of
intuition and of positional judgment. But in any event it is essential
to bear these things in mind and to realise their portent, for then a
definite basis is given for the conduct of the game.

The main difficulty is, not so much to gauge the value of the advantages
obtained, but to realize the fact that there are real advantages as well
as those which are deceptive and spurious.

Suppose that we have advanced P-R5; we have gained space without losing
time, but this advance may have led to nothing and the pawn has become
weak. Visible advantages are often a delusion. An analysis of
actualities is clearly insufficient, although it is a necessity. It
forms a basis for a deeper analysis to which we shall refer at a later
stage. It must in fact be made with the most minute care, so that the
true analysis shall be grounded on a really sound basis and not on
positional judgment alone, which can frequently lead us astray and
result in the worst errors.

For the moment let it suffice to draw the amateur's attention to the
fact that the elements under discussion are not merely abstract and
theoretical conceptions, but are in fact the very basis of chess, and
that knowledge of them should be of great assistance in the conduct of a
game.


                           II. IDEAS IN CHESS


              1. OBJECTS TO FOLLOW AND HOW TO ATTAIN THEM


The object of a game of chess is to administer checkmate. It happens but
seldom that this can be effected in the early stages of a game. In order
to enforce a mate it is often necessary to fight a fierce and frequently
long-drawn-out battle. In the course of this contest we must proceed
step by step, gradually increasing any advantage we may have, so that
the mate occurs as the logical conclusion of our efforts. It would be
futile to think of a mate the whole time, when at first no attack can
threaten the adverse King. Against a strong player, or between
well-matched opponents, it would be presumptuous in normal circumstances
to expect to mate in, say, the first fifteen moves. Besides, it is of no
importance whether it only happens on the 65th move, and whether it is
effected by a raging Queen or a modest pawn, the last survivor on the
board.

In our quest for superiority it is immaterial to us in which of the
three elements it occurs. We must at times make prudent moves, whose
sole object is to gain a _tempo_ or the control of a strong square; and we
must not, without due care, capture a pawn left _en prise_ by an astute
adversary. But one must never forget that an advantage in one of the
elements represents an advantage in position and, moreover, that it
determines the character of the play; an advantage in space cannot be
exploited in the same way as an advantage in time.

The game of chess, however, is not mechanical; the intellect
predominates. It is a contest of ideas within the framework of time and
space, in a chess sense.

In the 16th century Damiano advised chess-players never to make a move
without some object. In order to play well, it is necessary to know what
objects it is wise to pursue, and by what means they can be encompassed.

In the second part of this book we shall make an exhaustive study of the
secrets of the middle game and we shall examine in greater detail both
the objects in question and the means of attaining them peculiar to each
type of position. At the moment we can only generalise, and without
claiming to be exhaustive we shall make a general and succinct survey of
the various positions.

Every plan in chess aims at obtaining some well defined advantage. Where
the positions are even, we try to upset the balance in our favour; if
our position is inferior we try to equalise; when we are lost, we
endeavour to set our opponent multifarious problems to render his task
more difficult. In a superior position we still try to increase our
advantage until it becomes decisive. But, whether we wish it or not, any
advantage we gain refers to one of the three elements. We may win a pawn
or immobilise a hostile piece; we may occupy a strong square or restrict
our opponent to squares or lines of no importance; we may reach a
desired goal ahead of our opponent. But in addition there are the
sacrifices in which, in order to surmount an important obstacle, we give
up everything else, and then it is possible to be in a state of
inferiority in all three elements and yet to win the game.

It is both impossible and useless to enumerate all the means by which
our objects can be attained--opening and closing of lines, interception,
isolation or doubling of pawns. Let it suffice to recall here some of
the more important and frequent cases.

_(i) The discovered check_. Some players are fond of giving check, no
doubt taking as true somebody's tag, "Never miss a check, it might be
mate." In order to be effective, a check must compel the adversary to
make some valueless if not damaging move. A discovered check, on the
other hand, is nearly always very dangerous. The piece which discovers
the check in most cases finds some important point of attack. Only too
often does it happen that a discovered check brings about an immediate
decision. A well-known example occurs in Petroff's Defence: 1 P-K4,
P-K4; 2 Kt-KB3, Kt-KB3; 3 KtxP, KtxP; 4 Q-K2, Kt-KB3; 5 Kt-B6 _dis. ch_,
and wins the Queen.

_(ii) The double check_. A double check is a rare occurrence; when it
does happen it generally has tremendous power, for the double threat
cannot be parried except by the flight of the threatened King. It is not
to be wondered at, if such a check frequently decides the game. Here is
a striking example: 1 P-K4, P-K4; z Kt-KB3, Kt-QB3; 3 B-Kt5, Kt-B3; 4
Castles, P-Q3; 5 P-Q4, KtxP; 6 P-Q5, P-QR3; 7 B-Q3, Kt-B3; 8 PxKt, P-K5;
9 R-K1, P-Q4; 10 B-K2, PxKt; 11 PxKtP, BxP; 12 B-Kt5 _mate_.

The discovered as well as the double check can be foreseen, and there
are usually ways and means of taking timely measures against it.

More insidious is the check occurring in the following short game: 1
P-K4, P-QB3; 2 Kt-QB3, P-Q4; 3 Kt-B3, PxP; 4 KtxP, Kt-Q2; 5 Q-K2,
KKt-B3; 6 Kt-Q6 _mate_. This check is neither a double nor a discovered
check, though it has the characteristics of both. Take away the KP and
we have a double check. As it is, the KP is pinned, and the result is
the same. The threat is less obvious and therefore more likely to
succeed. Without the KP Black would have anticipated the double check;
with the KP he did not trouble to look for a threat.

Incidentally, it may be added that a double check always is a discovered
check. The reverse is not the case.

_(iii) The fork_. A fork is a simultaneous attack on two pieces; the
simplest and most frequent fork is that effected by a pawn.

If one of the units attacked is the King, can we still speak of a fork
or should we call it a double check? In Asia, in former times, a
simultaneous threat to the King and the Rook--which was then the most
powerful piece--was called _shakrukh:_ "check and Rook." It is a special
and most decisive example of a fork. Here is an example culled from a
chess-manual: 1 P-K 4, P-K4; 2 Kt-KB3, P-KB3; 3 KtxP, PxKt; 4 Q-R5ch,
P-Kt3; 5 QxKP _ch_, and wins the Rook.

The fork by a Knight provides a special case; no piece executes this
manoeuvre with the same amount of discretion and, one might be tempted
to say, secrecy. When the Knight's fork is associated with a check, from
a simple trap due to an oversight, it often leads to brilliant
combinative play.

Examine the position in Diag. 7.


                               DIAGRAM 7

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    | #Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #B | #Kt|    |    | ^K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #K |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^Q |
                --------------------------------------- 

                       Study by Herbstman (1935)


Here White wins by means of a combination of great charm: 1 Q-K1 _ch_,
K-B7; (1 KxQ; 2 KtxB _ch_, followed by 3 KtxQ.) 2 Q-B1 _ch_, K-Kt6; 3
Q-Kt2 _ch_, K-B5; (3 ... K-R5; 4 Q-Kt4 _ch_) 4 Q-Kt4 _ch_, K-Q4; 5 Q-Q6
_ch_, K-B5; 6 QB5 _ch_, K-Kt6; 7 Q-Kt4 _ch_, K-B7 (or R7); 8 Q-Kt2 _ch_,
KxQ; 9 KtxB _ch_, and 10 KtxQ.

We see that the combination was based on the vulnerable position of the
black Queen, where it is attacked by the Knight after KtxB. The _modus
operandi_ was merely to force the black King on to any black square
where it would be in check after KtxB, thus effecting the fork.
Incidentally, Black's King had to undertake a most pleasing circular
tour!

_(iv) The pin_. The pin is a powerful means of tying up the adversary
and of restricting the freedom of action of his pieces. A pin is
effective only if the pinning piece is of less value than the masked
piece, particularly if that piece does not protect the pinned piece.

If the masked piece is a Rook, it is good; if it is the King it is best
of all. The most favourable case is when the pinned piece is
insufficiently protected, for then all the attacker's pieces will be
brought to bear on it. In all cases it is well to unpin the piece in
question as quickly as possible, not only to give it back its freedom of
action, but also to liberate the masked piece. Even in the most
innocuous case, where the pinned piece enjoys sufficient protection, it
is important to unpin it so as to be able to use it freely; but it is
essential to do so whenever the pinned piece has only insufficient or
defective protection, as for instance in the most frequent type of pin:
a B at KKt5 attacks a Knight at its KB3, protected by a pawn at KKt2,
with a Q at Q1 on the same diagonal as the pinning Bishop. In order to
avoid the doubling of pawns the masked piece, the Queen, must move away
without giving up the protection of the Knight, for instance, to her Q3.
The disadvantages of a pin are often so serious that in many cases it is
preferable to allow the doubling of pawns on the principle that "of two
evils, choose the lesser." The pinned piece can be partially unpinned if
we can interpose a Bishop between that and the masked piece behind it.

However, one must bear in mind that, if the pinning piece aims to some
extent at the masked piece, it is itself in danger. For instance, in the
case described above, if the pinned Knight can move away with a check,
the Bishop, if unguarded, can be captured by the Queen. With a B
interposed at K2 as indicated above, the case is even clearer: if the
attacker plays a Knight to Q5 there follows ... KtxKt; and the pinning
Bishop is doubly attacked. Although a pin in itself is a straightforward
and simple stratagem, this play and counter-play between the pinning
piece and the masked piece at times gives rise to manoeuvres of extreme
subtlety and leads to the most interesting combinations, particularly
when there is a double pin as in the following position (Diag. 7A): 1
... R-Kt7 _ch_; 2 R-Q2, Q-Q8; and wins.


                               DIAGRAM 7A

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    | ^Q |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #P |    | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | ^B |    |    |    |    |    | #Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | #R |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^K | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                    _White:_ Travin; _Black:_ Zeck
                            Leningrad, 1933


White's Rook at Q2 is pinned at first by the black Rook, and afterwards
by the black Queen also, and it is overwhelmed by the double task of
guarding both its King and Queen.

After due allowance is made for possible risks, it must be said that a
pinning piece is active, and it is always better to have active pieces
rather than passive ones. In attacking a given point we obtain a certain
advantage even if our opponent has sufficient forces available for its
adequate defence, for all pieces thus employed will become passive and
be deprived of their freedom of action, whereas, normally, our pieces
will be able to discontinue the attack at any time according to our own
free will and decision.

There are other means than these, more ruthless or more profound, of
carrying on the attack; we shall have occasion to study them more
exhaustively in Part II of this book. But they all belong to the
category of threats and thus we must take cognizance of their nature at
this stage.


                               2. THREATS


Nearly all manoeuvres which we undertake in order to achieve our aims
are in the nature of threats, and these threats at times may in
themselves represent an object for which we strive. A threat is, at all
events, the surest means of maintaining, if not of increasing, any
advantage we may have, and that is why White, having the move, can
always be the first to evolve threats, which should enable him to keep
the initiative. To be sure, White has not an extra move; he has only a
small part of a move--the right to make his move first. But it is
sufficient to get ahead of the opponent; White is the first to threaten
and Black has to defend, thereby losing some freedom of action, because
his pieces will become passive and thus, to the slight advantage of the
move will be added a greater, that of position.

There are innumerable possible threats; in order to study them more
easily we must needs divide them into groups.

In the first place there are the direct threats by which the enemy is
attacked at once, and then the distant or deferred threats, the effect
of which becomes manifest only after a series of moves.

It is impossible to say which of the two kinds is the more powerful, and
their effect varies. The immediate threat harasses the enemy and may
deprive him of all freedom of action; the second, on the other hand, is
less obvious, therefore more difficult to fathom. It requires time to
evolve an adequate defence and it may be said that in general it is the
more decisive and in any case the more dangerous of the two.

Let us examine the position in Diag. 8. White plays P-Kt5, with the
direct threat of capturing Black's BP and the more distant threat of
winning the Queen, or


                               DIAGRAM 8

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    | #R |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    | #Q |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | #P | ^Q |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^P |    |    | ^R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Tarrasch; _Black:_ Janowski
                              Ostend, 1907


if the Queen moves away, of capturing one of the Rooks by 2 PxP _ch_,
followed by P-Kt7. Black easily parries the immediate threat by taking
the pawn. But then White replies with 2 QxR _ch_, RxQ; 3 RxR, exchanging
the Queen for two Rooks, but maintaining the threat of winning Black's
Queen by R-B7 _ch_. If the Queen moves away there follows QR-B7 _ch_,
and R-R8 _mate_. Black is therefore compelled to give back the Queen by
3 ... QxR; but if White were to take the Queen now, Black with two
passed pawns against two passed pawns can draw the game. But after 3 ...
QxR; White plays 4 P-R6 _ch_, and Black resigns after the following
continuation: 4 ... K-Kt1; 2 P-R7 _ch_, K-Kt2; 6 RxQ, KxR; 7 P-R8(Q)
_ch_. Thus the distant threat has decided the game.

In this example we see a whole series of threats which arise in turn
without any respite. Black manages to defend himself against each
single, direct and immediate threat, but succumbs in the end to the most
distant one. This is a perfect illustration of the best possible
exploitation of the distant threat: an uninterrupted chain of direct
threats which allows the adversary no leisure to provide against the
danger which lurks in the background. The time will come when two
threats will occur: a direct threat and the distant threat, which has
now become immediate. It is possible to parry one of the two, but not
both.

Here we can also observe the indirect though actual threat, which
differs from the direct threat in that it is contingent. On the third
move there is a threat of winning the Queen--an immediate and direct
threat; if the Queen moves away there is the threat of a mate in two
moves: an indirect but immediate threat. This is an example of a double
threat: but an indirect threat can also occur by itself, unaccompanied
by a direct threat. For instance, in the Cambridge Springs variation of
the Queen's Gambit Declined, Black's ... Q-R5; contains no direct
threat, but it indirectly threatens White's QB at its KKt5.

Being less obvious than the direct, the indirect threats are more
dangerous: but as they are less forcible, being themselves contingent
only, there is nearly always a choice of means in evading them.

Another group of threats contains real and sham threats; those which are
a real menace to the opponent and those which only appear as such.

It may seem strange that a move which threatens nothing in reality can
be called a threat and be taken seriously. It is a perfectly true saying
that a threat is often stronger than its execution. An insignificant
threat which persists for a certain length of time and burdens our play,
forces us to bear it in mind, and to try to guess at what precise moment
the enemy will choose to set it in motion. It is useless to insist that
the threat is not serious, that it is a sham: circumstances may change,
and very suddenly the same threat becomes acute and most embarrassing.

Already in the opening we have to deal with similar cases. Kt-KB3 is not
really meant to threaten the capture of the opposing KP, but should we
carelessly overlook it at any time, we lose our KP. In the Ruy Lopez 3
B-Kt5, does not actually threaten to win Black's King's pawn, but here
again it may happen that a moment's inattention in the course of
operations will cost us the KP, or at least cause us much trouble in
winning it back.

The middle game provides more complicated examples: let us examine the
position in Diag. 9. Here, as is well known, Black's normal development
is ... P-B4; which is very awkward for White because he has castled on
the Q side.

If, however, this move is made without any preparation, it might lead to
trouble for Black as follows: 1 ... P-B4; 2 PxP, and if 2 ...QKtxP; 3
KtxP, BxKt; 4 B-QB4. But in order to make this variation possible the
capture of White's B by a check must be prevented; therefore White's
first move must be K-Kt1, a waiting move and a wise precaution against
Black's ... R-B1; and ... P-B4. If now Black were to play 1 ... P-B4; at
once, he would, after 2 PxP, have to recapture the P


                               DIAGRAM 9

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B | #P | #Kt| #B |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    | #P | ^B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | #Kt|    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| ^B | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^Q |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K | ^R |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

             _White:_ Rubinstein; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                        St. Petersburg, 1909


with his KtP. But then the continuation would be: 3 PxP, PxP; 4 KtxKt,
BPxKt; 5 BxP, PxB; 6 Q-Kt3 _ch_, K-R1; 7 QxB, PxKt; 8 RxKt. It follows
that Black must provide against White's 6 Q-Kt3 _ch_, before he can play
1 ... P-B4. White, by his preventive move, has avoided his adversary's
real threat and rendered it inoperative; the fact that Black omitted the
preparatory 1 ... K-R1; has transformed into a real and serious danger
what was originally a fictitious threat.

This position illustrates the play of threats and counter-threats which
here is subtle and deep.

It frequently happens that fictitious threats have only a psychological
object, that of intimidating a nervous opponent, who loses faith in his
own legitimate threats in his anxiety about his adversary's imaginary
menaces. This type of play is, however, abhorrent and contrary to the
spirit of chess.

Let us imagine that, in the same position, Black has a pawn at KR3
instead of KR2. It is clear that he cannot capture White's Bishop as the
open KR file would be far too dangerous for him. White can therefore
leave his Bishop _en prise_ in perfect safety. It is easy to imagine
how, after a few moves, circumstances could have changed so that the
Bishop, if still _en prise_, could in fact be captured; a fictitious
threat has changed, under our eyes, into a real one. Lack of due
attention has meant the loss of a Bishop.

It is impossible to enumerate all possible threats, from the simple to
the complicated, from the ruthless capture of a Queen to the subtle
occupation of a square or the contest for the centre. They all aim at
one and the same object, the reduction of the opponent's freedom of
action; they serve to restrict his pieces, to create weaknesses in his
position, and to prevent him from occupying strong squares and open
lines, while allowing us to do so ourselves to our own advantage.


                       III. STRATEGY AND TACTICS


            1. PRELIMINARY AND INNER ANALYSIS OF A POSITION


We have seen that the analysis of the structure of a position is not
sufficient for its thorough understanding. Yet it is an essential
requirement and must be attended to with extreme care. Without it an
analysis in depth is far more difficult and many important details might
escape our attention; in addition, this preliminary analysis presents us
with a general impression of the position, which either gives us
confidence or creates alarm; in either case we know where we are. We
must not overlook the fact that in making this analysis we learn to
estimate a position integrally, and, after doing this very frequently,
we shall learn to realise very quickly the exact value of any position.
Take the position in Diag. 10.

It is easy to count up the pieces, the squares and the moves and to
realise that White has the advantage in all


                               DIAGRAM 10

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    | #R | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #Kt|    | #Q |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Q |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    | ^Kt|    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K | ^R |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Leonhardt; _Black:_ Marshall


three elements. He has an extra pawn, occupies the centre with his pawns
at Q5 and KB4 and the Q at Q4, and is a move ahead in his development (8
moves against 7). He has every reason, therefore, to be satisfied with
his position and even before making the necessary supplementary analysis
he can anticipate victory.

But, in chess, matters are rarely so simple and clear-cut: the
combination of the elements comes into play, and it is of far more
frequent occurrence that an advantage in one element is set off by a
disadvantage in another.

The position in Diag. 11 will convince us of this. With an equal number
of pawns and pieces Black has evidently an advantage in space, thanks to
his advanced pawns at K5 and KB4, and the Kt at K4. But if we count up
the moves we shall find that White has made 14 moves and Black only 11.
Consequently, White is three moves ahead and it becomes necessary to
weigh up the true value of the respective gains and


                               DIAGRAM 11

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B | #P |    | #Q |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #B |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #Kt| #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^B |    | ^P |    | ^Kt| ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    | ^R | ^B | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R | ^Q |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Vergani; _Black:_ Teichmann
                            Hastings, 1895


losses in the different elements. These may balance each other, but it
is also likely that the gains on one side are of decisive importance,
whilst the opponent's gains, important in themselves, have little
bearing on the actual situation.

It is easy enough to assert that the feeling for position, that
mysterious instinct which the Germans call "_Positionsgefhl_" ("instinct
for position" hardly does this word justice), is the sole arbiter in
this matter and that there is nothing to be done for the player who does
not possess it. We must not belittle the part played in chess by this
instinctive feeling: it would be tantamount to belittling talent. But
who is there who would maintain that, because this instinct plays a big
part in the art of combination, the exact analysis of variations is
superfluous or even impossible?

The more complicated the position, the greater the part played by this
positional instinct, which at times seems to discover that which one
would hardly suspect to be there. On the smallest details, to which
another would hardly give a thought, the lucky possessor of this
"instinct for position" manages to build up an imposing strategic plan:
on the _tout ensemble_ of a position, without at times being able to
explain why, he constructs a line of play which, after a number of
moves, raises problems, the existence of which would never even have
occurred to his less gifted opponent.

Nevertheless, can it be asserted that these hidden problems were not
inherent in the position? That hard facts have no part in it? Is it not
rather the case that the average amateur is content with a cursory and
superficial appreciation of a position, so that important points are apt
to escape his attention? We shall refrain from answering this question,
but shall, instead, strongly assert that it is worth while making a
systematic attempt. This has never been done. But to cultivate the habit
of analysis, in our sense, is the only way, not only of developing a
correct appreciation of positions, but of creating that "instinct for
position" in those who do not possess it.

Let us take our analysis a step further. Taking the same Diag. 11
(above), a glance is sufficient for us to realise that Black has the
advantage. How is it, then, that White has an advantage in time? Is it
real or imaginary? How can we ascertain that?

First of all we can discern a number of pawn moves which are of little
account, although in point of time there is no difference between them
and moves of real significance. Two pawns have moved forward on the Q
side, which is really passive in this position; there has been an
advance by the KRP, which advance contributes nothing to White's
development; finally, his KP has advanced one square only, by which the
centre has been given up to Black, although, again in point of time,
this move counts as much as a double move. The same applies to the
pieces. The Knight has taken two moves to reach a most unfavourable
square, which leads practically nowhere. The QB has taken two moves in
occupying a diagonal, which it could have reached in one, and where it
more or less plays the part of a pawn in preventing the loss of the
exchange. The second Bishop has made a modest move: it is posted on two
diagonals, of which one is blocked by its own pawn whilst the other aims
at nothing.

Thus it is quite simple to establish the fact that in reality White has
no advantage in time at all, and that Black is the better developed. A
very little time and thought is often all that is required to estimate
correctly such gains and losses. But this analysis does not go as deeply
as is necessary: it still is external analysis only, although a little
more thorough. It would be a mistake to let it go at that, for, in order
to play a game properly, it is necessary to grasp all the
characteristics of a position down to the smallest detail, and a general
survey such as indicated above would fall far short of what is required.
When what we might call the inner analysis has been carried out
conscientiously, we can proceed to the third phase of the complete
analysis, namely, the individual analysis: the particular points which
characterise a given position.

The structural analysis of the position in Diag. 12 shows equality of
forces and of space, and a slight advantage in time for White (one
tempo). Deeper analysis will lead to a very different valuation and will
show that White has a great advantage.


                               DIAGRAM 12

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #Q | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #Kt|    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    | ^B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Kt|    | ^B |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^Q | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Charousek; _Black:_ Schting
                             Berlin, 1897


The first fact which would strike the observer is that all the white
pieces are developed, whereas two of Black's pieces are still on their
initial squares; it would require at least three _tempi_ to bring them
out. The position of the remaining black pieces is equally unfavourable:
the KR is blocked by an advanced white pawn, the KB is occupied in
guarding a pawn, the Queen has no move, a Knight shuts in the QB; only
the Knight at QB3 is well placed, attacking a white pawn and defending
its own, although it must be said that White's Knight is
counterbalancing its effect.

By comparison White's development of his pieces is far superior. Both
his Rooks are well placed, one of them protecting an advanced pawn and
the other commanding an open file. Both Knights occupy excellent posts,
even the one at QKt3--normally an indifferent square for a Knight--for
here it attacks Black's advanced passed pawn. Moreover it controls QR5
and QB5 and limits the action of the opponent's units, where he would be
most likely to seek relief. The Bishops are even better placed: the KB
at Q3 stands on two open diagonals, the more important aiming at the
opposing King's field; the QB is blocked by its own pawn on one of its
diagonals, but its influence is felt beyond that pawn. For instance,
Black's Q cannot move to QB2 nor the QR to Kt1 because of the threat of
P-K6, at a propitious moment. Incidentally, it controls KKt5, a useful
square in a K side attack to which the KB already contributes from Q3.
The Queen is passive for the moment; she completes the occupation of the
centre files and disposes of two semi-open diagonals of which one is
particularly important in case of a K side attack.

In the course of this structural analysis we have thrice mentioned the
possibility of a King's side attack. This tends to prove that such a
simple analysis can give birth to a possible, plan of campaign.

We shall later on see how such an idea must be elucidated, in order to
decide on how to execute it. For the moment let it suffice to say that
the position of the white pieces is such that a K side attack is
justified and that a glance at Black's position shows that the King's
side is denuded of defending pieces; therefore the situation is ripe for
an attack on that wing.

Let us go back to our analysis. White's advantage in time is obvious,
but it is also easy to discern his preponderance in space: it is
necessary only to see which of the players controls the most important
squares. To sum up: White's enormous advantage in position is undoubted,
and one could even say that, thanks to Black's two undeveloped pieces,
he has an advantage in force as well.

One point, however, remains to be cleared up: the comparative value of
the two centre pawns, namely, White's KP and Black's QP. They both have
points in common and have a similar influence on the play of the pieces.

Black's QP has the great advantage of being a passed pawn, whereas
White's KP is impeded by the black KBP. On the other hand, unlike its
counterpart, it is not isolated. This denotes a certain weakness in
Black's QP, which, however, can become strong if further advanced. The
positional difference between the two pawns is more striking still. The
KP attacks two important squares within the enemy camp, of which one
(Black's Q3) is unprotected by a pawn and thus can easily be occupied by
White; the other square (Black's KB3) is even more important, being an
essential square in the defence of the King's field--yet another
portent. The two squares attacked by the QP have not the same importance
as they are both guarded by white pawns. The KP cannot advance because
of the KBP, and, similarly, the QP is blocked by the KB, which at the
same time remains very active. Finally, if we add that the KP is in
close proximity to the active K side, whereas the QP is next to the
passive Q side, there is no more to be said on the subject.

Thus, having carefully analysed the position, its possibilities have
become much clearer to us. Are we now able to decide what to do? Can we
say that we are no longer in the position of a player who knows that he
has the advantage, but is at a loss how to exploit it?

In order to arrive at a final solution of the problem, we must end up
with what we might call an individual analysis, which is nothing else
but a careful analysis concentrated on one or two particular points from
which the position derives its character.

The characteristics were revealed by the deeper analysis, and the three
main points were: two undeveloped black pieces, the relative value of
the opposing centre pawns, and the possibility of a direct K side
attack. The first point tells us that it would be unwise to delay
matters, for if we give the adversary sufficient time, he will develop
the pieces in question, for which he only requires two moves.

The other two points indicate the line of play which must be followed.

Which of the two centre pawns is the weaker; which one is being, or can
be, effectively attacked? Black cannot very well give the matter much
thought until he has completed his development; were it Black's move he
could at once play ... B-B2; attacking the KP whilst giving up his own
QP. Still more logical would be Kt-B1-Kt3, after which Black's position
would be satisfactory. But it requires time.

Against this, White can with advantage attack the QP by retreating the
Bishop. But it must not be overlooked that, should he simply retire the
Bishop to Kt1, Black can reply with Kt-B1;--a useful move against a poor
one, whereby the QP is now guarded by the Queen; Black then pins the KKt
by B-Kt5; and is out of his difficulties; he has even brought out his
two undeveloped pieces. It follows that White's attack on the QP must be
accompanied by a threat. The move B-QKt5, is indicated; not only is the
QP attacked three times, but one of the supporting Knights is under fire
as well, and remains pinned if the other Knight moves away. Thus the QP
falls and the positional advantage turns into an advantage in material.

However, there are certain objections. Black will simply abandon his QP,
opening a diagonal for his KB. He then remains with two Bishops, the QB
occupying the long diagonal, with the threat of a possible K side
attack. In default of anything better, this result might be acceptable
to White, but one may well ask whether his positional advantage is not
too substantial to be exchanged for such a small gain in material?

The idea of a King's side attack follows quite naturally. All is ready
for a Bishop's sacrifice at KR7; the essential pieces are available and
there is no defending Knight at Black's KB3 or KB1. But after BxP _ch_,
KxB; Kt-Kt5 _ch_, K-Kt1; Q-R5, Kt-B1; QxP _ch_, K-R1; White cannot bring
his Rooks into play as Black's QP prevents them from occupying the third
rank, nor has the Knight sufficient time to move up and effect a mate.

Another point must be considered: Black's King could seek refuge at
KKt3. Again this combination might turn out to be satisfactory for
White, as he remains with two pawns for a piece and a strong attack.

We must now ask ourselves, in view of the fact that this continuation
also is unclear, whether there is not another means of exploiting
White's positional advantage--not, however, by lengthy preparations such
as bringing up the Knight or advancing the K side pawns, for then Black
would have time enough to complete his development. Having an advantage
in time White would thereby offend against one of the basic principles
in such positions. It is essential to proceed by way of threats.
Automatically the move Kt-Kt5, suggests itself. If ... P-KR3; is played,
Q-R5, wins easily, as does P-K6, in reply to ... P-Kt3. Finally, after
... Kt-B1; the continuation Q-R5, P-Kt3; Q-R6, threatening Kt-K4, and
Kt-B6, or Kt-Q6, is very troublesome for Black.

The only drawback in playing Kt-Kt5, lies in the fact that it leaves the
KP unguarded, and Black will at once take advantage of it by playing
KKtxP; opening the diagonal for the QB. There follows: 2 Q-R5, P-KR3; 3
B-R7 _ch_, K-B1; (... K-R1; 4 KtxP _ch_, KtxKt; 5 B-Kt6,) 4 B-K4, B-Kt5;
5 Q-R4, PxKt; 6 Q-R8 _ch_, K-K2; 7 BxP _ch_, K-Q2; 8 QxP, and wins.

We need not, at this juncture, seek to decide which of the three
continuations (B-QKt5, attacking the QP, BxP _ch_, or Kt-Kt5, King's
side attack) is the soundest and the most decisive (in the actual game
Kt-Kt5, was played); it is sufficient to establish the fact that the
complete analysis, working step by step from the externals to the deeper
characteristics of the position, allows us to realise the inward
significance of the situation, thus indicating what aims to pursue.

It may be said that these could be perceived without the help of this
analysis; if so, it could only be because they are sufficiently obvious.
But this is the case in but few positions; in all other cases--this type
of analysis becomes invaluable. It is hardly possible that, after
carefully examining the potentialities of each piece one by one in
something of the same manner as we have done here, we should not become
aware of the basic ideas inherent in a position. We necessarily must see
with the utmost clearness the advantages or disadvantages which obtain,
the characteristic lines of the play and how clearly they are defined.
On that will depend the degree of intensity of our play; it will even
determine the proper direction of our attack. More is not needed.


                       2. THE POSITION AS A WHOLE


We have said that cases rarely occur in which all the advantages of
time, space and force are to be found on one side whilst the general and
real advantage is on the opposing side.

See, for example, the position in Diag. 13.

Black has two extra pawns. Even if he loses the KP he will still have a
majority of one pawn. He has 14 moves to his credit against 10 by his
opponent; thus he has


                               DIAGRAM 13

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q | #K |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #B | #Kt| #P | #B | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^B | ^P |    | ^Kt| #P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^B | #P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^K |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q | ^R |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Morphy; _Black:_ McConnell
                           New Orleans, 1849


gained four moves. Finally he has more space, thanks to his advanced K
side pawns, with a pawn on the sixth rank, which advantage will be
slightly counterbalanced by the loss of his KP. And yet, in spite of all
these advantages, Black's game is manifestly inferior, and he resigned
after a few moves. The strength of the position as a whole is decisive
here, and this is not a question of an automatic adding up of the
various separate elements. Once we have made an analysis of a position
we must know how to complete it by synthesis.

Two points here are particularly noticeable. The first is the
concentrated action of the forces. A piece may occupy a strong square
and yet have no prospects and lack all effective force. Worse still, it
may have power and yet be of no assistance whatever to the other pieces.
It is then sheer dead weight. If you have an extremely well-placed
Knight at QB3, but you are engaged upon a K side attack, the Knight will
be of little use to you. You may be ahead both in space and in time, but
if your adversary's pieces are available for the defence of the attacked
K side, you play with one piece less and your attack is doomed to
failure. Most sacrifices are based on such circumstances: you give up a
piece, or even two, because the opponent has not yet developed some of
his pieces or is unable to bring them to the threatened quarter.

The second point, the logical complement of the first, is that, in the
middle game, when a certain plan is under consideration, the general
principles (occupation of the centre, open lines, strong and weak
squares) are of less account than the selection of an object of attack,
against which all the available forces are to be launched. On this point
Alekhine goes so far as to say "all general considerations must be
entirely forgotten" and "only that which contributes to the execution of
the plan selected is of any avail."

In this statement, in itself so general and categorical, there is a
certain amount of exaggeration. If we disregard the very foundation of
reasoned strategy, retribution is bound to overtake us. An attack,
successful in itself, may be compromised by an inferior pawn position.
Again, it is well known that a flank attack is best parried by a thrust
in the centre; if the centre is neglected a seemingly winning attack
turns into disaster.

At the same time it is true that all these "first principles" need not
at all times dominate our play. You cannot conceive a plan, commence an
attack, and look backwards all the time. Every decision contains a
certain risk; if all risks are to be eliminated it is best not to play
chess at all; we should be a beaten foe from the very beginning; for all
our moves would be timid and spineless. "_Fortes fortuna juvat_."

In judging a position as a whole, it is necessary to realise whether
there is a point of attack which is decisive for the whole game: should
there be one, then is the time to concentrate the whole of the forces,
leaving all unimportant points bare of troops. The alternative, play
over the whole board, necessitates a judicious distribution of forces
and leads to a game both more difficult and more complicated. The
first-mentioned type of position leads to rapid combinatory play, the
second is typical of positional play with its numerous and slow
manoeuvres. When the ultimate aim of the game, namely, the mate, is
within sight, then the utmost boldness is warranted.


                3. CONSTRUCTION AND EXECUTION OF THE PLAN


In the foregoing chapters we have seen all the fundamental ideas on
which the elaboration of a plan can be based. There are two points which
must, however, be borne in mind. It must not be thought that a plan will
occur to us fully worked out in all its details at a given moment, like
Pallas Athene arising fully armed from the head of Zeus. Step by step,
after the tentative manoeuvres of the opening, it takes shape in our
mind, at first in vague outlines, gaining gradually in definition and
character. Where the position is simple and the advantage well defined,
there is no difficulty in formulating at once a suitable strategic plan.
But it is not possible to do this at will in obscure and complicated
positions of no definite character, where both sides have equal chances,
or, worse still, where the formations are symmetrical. It must then
suffice to evolve an idea, without realising quite how to carry it out,
or even where it will lead.

Secondly, let it not be imagined that one single plan is all that will
be required in the course of a whole game. Even the most general
strategic plan, based on wide conceptions, cannot embrace all the varied
phases of a game. It may possibly happen that a single idea may form the
basis of a game of chess, if this game be not too long, and of fairly
uniform simplicity. But usually more or less clear-cut plans follow one
another, covering series of moves more or less extended. It is not only
that the human brain can hardly conceive a whole game, even a short one
of only thirty moves, or that the opponent's resistance may be of a
strength and variety impossible to foresee, but first and foremost that
the average plan hardly ever brings about an immediately decisive
result.

Having achieved an early object and scored a point, we perceive that the
road to victory is still a long one, and that there will be further
objects to be decided on and attained. And what devious ways will have
to be followed! At one time the opponent will try to lure us from our
path by a tempting bait, at other times his mistake will tempt us to
abandon our strategic idea in favour of an immediate and real tactical
advantage. Or again, his tenacious resistance takes away all that made
our object a tempting one and forces us to seek other aims. A game of
chess is often not just one single battle, but a whole campaign. We get
the worst of it at one point, but prevail at another; a whole series of
battles is fought on the chessboard in the space of a dozen moves
or so.

Though it may happen that a guiding idea recurs constantly and at
intervals like a _leit-motiv_--and such games often are of classical
beauty--it would be wrong to make it a rule; it would only be
detrimental to our game, built upon logic and imagination, and rich,
above all, in possibilities and in variety.

Yet, bearing all this in mind, it is impossible to play a satisfactory
game without following a strategic plan, which sooner or later will have
to be evolved. To settle on a plan too late means an advantage to the
opponent, who will be ahead of us in his threats; to have no plan at all
would render our play inconsistent--without logic and therefore without
strength.

Let us examine a position (Diag. 14) which is comparatively simple and
in which the object pursued is of


                               DIAGRAM 14

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #Q |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Kt| ^Kt| ^R |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^Q | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Capablanca
                             Match, 1921


a restricted nature. This renders the elaboration of a plan
considerably, easier, an important point in the preliminary examination
of the position.

The games are approximately even, being equal in force and space, with,
however, this rather strange circumstance, which gives food for thought,
that, although White has a KP on the fourth rank whereas Black's KP is
at its third, Black has the control of the greater number of centre
squares. Another unusual point, which is revealed by the analysis of the
element of time, is that White, who has an advantage of one move (9
against 8), has not yet developed all his pieces whilst all of Black's
pieces are in play or readily available.

Getting down to details, we observe that White's QB is still on its
original square, impeding the QR; we notice also the strange position of
the KR on the third rank, and the bad position of a Knight at QKt3,
whilst the other Knight at QB3, usually a good square for a Knight, is
under the impending threat of ... P-Kt5; a serious threat as the Knight
would have no good square available. Against this the position of all
Black's forces is extremely favourable; with two more moves by the Rooks
his development would be completed and superior by far to White's.

The essential objects of both players are for Black to complete his
development, and for White to save his KP which is threatened by the
advance of Black's QKtP. If White tries to effect this by the simplest
means, namely, 1 P-B3, there follows: 1 ... P-Kt5; 2 Kt-Q1, P-QR4; with
the threat of ... B-R3. At present nearly all the white pieces are badly
placed. Let us try another way: 1 P-QR3, P-QR4 ; 2 KtxKtP, Q-Kt3;
winning the KP. There remains only the advance 1 P-K5. This opens the
long diagonal, and now the white KKtP will be under fire from Black's Q
and QB. The threat of a Bishop at QB4 will prevent the defensive P-B3,
by White. How is this future menace to be parried? We see that the problem
has changed even before the first move is decided upon. The reason is
that it would be too late to seek a remedy after we have committed
ourselves to a certain line of play; eventualities must be foreseen and
weighed up.

Our Rook at Q3 can now render valuable service by moving to KKt3, where
it protects the KKtP and, in addition, enables the backward QB to
develop at KR6 without loss of time. This is a rule of general
application: if a piece is badly placed, before withdrawing it with the
loss of an important tempo, one must seek to extract some advantage from
its supposedly unfavourable position. In this case, why not assume that
the Rook was placed at Q3 in anticipation of some action on the K side?

Thus does White's first plan take shape--advance of the KP, followed by
R-Kt3, and B-R6, which move completes his development. It is easy to see
that Black's ... P-Kt3; would not hinder this plan in the least. White's
Bishop could still go to KR6, and in addition there would be a most
desirable square for a white Knight at KB6.

Without examining Black's point of view in detail, let us see how this
plan of White's would work out.

After 1 P-K5, Kt-Q4; 2 R-Kt3, Black plays 2 ... KtxKt; forcing the
recapture, by the Rook which must leave its post of attack: 3 RxKt,
Q-Q2; now White reverts to his original plan by 4 R-Kt3, and Black plays
first of all 4 ... KR-Q1; (threatening ... Q-Q8 _ch_) and after s B-R6,
P-Kt3; White, who has achieved his first object, has not yet obtained a
satisfactory position, for his Kt is still badly placed and the QR is
not yet in play. Now new ideas must be evolved and a new series of moves
is essential in order to overcome these various difficulties. It is
impossible to foresee all the future moves in a game of chess; be
satisfied if you can conceive a more or less extended series of moves
which represent a logical plan; it will be a great step forward from the
disconnected manner of the average amateur's play, which consists of
separate moves, mostly lacking all sequence and logical connection.

To return to the position under examination, after 5 ... P-Kt3; the
white Knight would be well placed at its Q4 or QB5, for which reason
White plays 6 B-K3. Black seeks to thwart the adversary's plans with 6
... Q-Q4; with a direct attack on the King. But now, with 7 Kt-R5, White
attacks the QB. Thus White exchanges a weak Knight for a strong Bishop
and eliminates, at the same time, the menace of the "two Bishops."
Relying on his advantage in time, Black now plays 7 ... QR-B1; 8 KtxB,
QxKt.

The position (Diag. 15) is now simplified, but White


                               DIAGRAM 15

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #R |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #Q |    |    | #B | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #P |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^B |    | ^R |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^Q | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


still has to cope with some difficulties; his QR is still undeveloped,
his KP is weak, his KR is more or less out of play for the moment; but
there are fewer pieces and he can hope to equalise the game, though not
without difficulty.

Let us recapitulate: we have seen that the complete analysis of a
position followed by a synthesis of it as a whole, reveals to us its
character and enables us to find the main idea underlying it.
Accordingly our plan takes shape; we realise not only in which direction
we must act, and at which objects we must aim, but also at what speed
these objects have to be achieved.

The main thing is to see clearly the essence of the position, so as not
to waste time and effort in attaining unimportant objects, and it is
prudent to allow first for the opponent's moves so that our own ideas
may be clear in our mind, allowing us to execute them at our leisure and
not under pressure. Having a very precise notion of what we wish to do,
we must ask ourselves how the opponent could interfere or prevent the
execution of our plan.

Very often the real difficulty lies in the fact that the opponent,
seeing our moves, can foresee our intentions and find an adequate reply
in good time. The question therefore is how to conceal our intentions
and how to lead our opponent astray with regard to them. It is true,
enough that, after the initial moves, we are not always sure that our
opponent will fathom their trend; but we must always allow for this
eventuality. To keep our intentions concealed is a problem in
chess--luckily there are ways and means of solving it.

In the position shown in Diag. 16 the following moves were played: 1 ...
B-R6; 2 B-B3, B-Kt5; 3 B-Kt2, B-R6; 4 B-B3, B-Kt5; and only


                               DIAGRAM 16

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #Q |    | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| #Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Q | ^Kt|    |    | #B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^R | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Rti; _Black:_ Alekhine
                           Baden-Baden, 1925


after White retired the B to R1, did Black by 5 ... P-KR4; initiate an
attack which secured him the victory. Why this repetition of moves? Here
is the answer. For the attack in question, aimed at White's KKt3, it was
inopportune to have a white Bishop at his KKt2 or KB3. Only after White
had given up occupying these squares did Black proceed with his intended
attack. There is no doubt that this repetition of moves deceived White,
who, seeing his adversary's indecision and his apparent willingness to
accept a draw, was induced to overestimate his own prospects and to play
for a win.

Another, and perhaps more striking, example is shown in Diag. 17. Here
the continuation was as follows: 1 R-Q3, R-Kt7; 2 B-Kt1, Q-R8; 3 B-B2,
R-Kt8. We see that White has made three perfectly useless moves, without
any significance, which not only allowed the adverse Q and R to
penetrate into his


                               DIAGRAM 17

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #Q |    |    | #B |    |    |    | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #Kt|    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | ^Kt| ^P | #P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | ^P | #P |    | ^P |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^Q | ^K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #R |    |    |    |    | ^B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Showalter
                        Cambridge Springs, 1904


position, but even induced them to do so. But it was in fact only a _ruse
de guerre_, for with the departure from its camp of Black's heavy
artillery, White was able to initiate a decisive attack, forcing the
enemy's surrender in a few moves: 4 Kt-B6, R-R8; 5 Q-Kt7; KtKt2; 6
Q-KB7, R-Kt8 _ch_; 7 K-B3.

In both cases the means employed were rather crude; they succeeded
thanks to the opponent's mistakes. But there are more subtle manoeuvres
which leave the adversary in doubt as to our intentions--threats neither
direct nor too immediate. It would be idle to pretend that such methods
are always at our disposal, but it is of some value, in choosing between
several continuations, to take into account which of them is the least
obvious and therefore the harder to parry.


                       4. TACTICAL POSSIBILITIES


In the preceding chapters we have spoken mainly of general ideas and
strategic plans. But in almost every game tactical possibilities in
great numbers are likely, and it is important to learn how to take
advantage of such opportunities. An astute player, thanks to his
tactical ability, will succeed in saving many a lost game. It is quite
easy to become the slave to a preconceived idea, and, whilst following
it up methodically, to overlook a clandestine mate, subtly engineered by
the opponent. A pedant, a blind worshipper of logic, is at times caught
napping by an apparently fantastic scheme. Patiently pursuing a dim and
distant object, a player often succumbs to a trap, especially if he has
failed to take timely precautions and has unconcernedly and strictly
adhered to his selected line of play. And how many opportunities are
overlooked and left unexploited!

An opponent's oversight, a mistake, a weak move--such opportunities must
be seized on the instant; a move later, and the chance will have gone.
At times there arises a question of principle: shall we forgo our
strategic plan in favour of a tactical diversion, which may be more
lucrative? Although such opportunities, both in attack and defence, must
be utilised whenever possible, the strategic plan can still remain the
basis of our play. But sad would be the fate of the strategist who,
having formulated his plan, thought that he could go to sleep, nothing
more being required of him.

Tactical opportunities may lead to simple manoeuvres, but they are the
mainspring of many of the most sparkling combinations. Tactics therefore
require special attention in any book dealing with the subject of
combinations.[1] It will be sufficient in the present volume to give a
few illustrations.

[1] _C f_. my book "The Art of Chess Combination" (Chatto & Windus).

In Diag. 18 White is conducting a vigorous K side attack, the position
of Black's King being seriously compromised.


                               DIAGRAM 18

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    | #R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P | #B | ^P |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    | #R | #P | #Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^Q |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Alekhine; _Black:_ Tylor
                             Margate, 1937


The game continued as follows:

1 KtxP, BxP (capturing the Knight spells the loss of the Queen); 2 Q-B3
_ch_, R(B1)-B3; 3 Kt-K4 _dis. ch_, BxR; 4 RxB _ch_, K-R1; 5 QxR _ch_,
RxQ; 6 RKt8 _ch_, KxR; 7 KtxR _ch_, followed by 8 KtxQ. We have here a
magnificent example of the "Kt combination," the basis of which is the
unguarded position of Black's Queen at her KR4. The strategic conception
remains the same: attack against the King's field by means of the
opening of the KKt file; but this unfortunate position of the black
Queen affords the tactical opportunity of a sudden and beautiful
conclusion.

Observe that such tactical turns do not of necessity divert the player
from his original strategic plan, and that at times, as in this
instance, they further its execution.

Their conception, however, is frequently much more complicated. The
position in Diag. 19 is such an example on the same theme.


                               DIAGRAM 19

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    | #K |    | #R |    | #B |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P |    | #Q |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #Kt| ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    | ^B | ^Q |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^B |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K | ^R |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Andreiev; _Black:_ Dolookhanow
                            Leningrad, 1935


At first sight, no Kt combination appears to be possible here for no
basis can be discerned on which it could be built up.

It is easy to see that Black must attack the King's position, but his
opponent can do likewise and, it seems, with better chances, as the
position of Black's King is open and White's B-Kt1, carries a
disagreeable threat. There are, however, two weaknesses in White's camp.
The King is none too well placed and the Queen at K3 is unguarded. The
following combination is comparatively easy to find: 1 ... QxP; 2 PxQ,
BxP _ch_; 3 K-Kt1, Kt-B6 _ch_; 4 K-R1, and the King is in a perfect
stalemate position. The problem is how to take advantage of the fact. An
unimaginative player would never have found the cunning 4 ... B-Kt7
_ch_; 5 KxB, KtxR _ch_; attacking the Queen. Here, then, is the
combination for which we were looking! The only flaw is that the Rook is
guarded by its companion; as soon as this fact becomes clear, the whole
combination becomes practicable. The initial move must be 1 ... KRxB;
and, after 2 RxR, the combination shown above can be effected.

Anyone seeing this combination for the first time, with its initial
sacrifice of the exchange seemingly entirely disconnected from the
proceedings on the other wing, might well think it a miracle and the
work of a genius. The retro-analysis to which we have subjected the
position shows us the inner workings of the combination and, although no
one would deny the talent of the player who conceived it, there is no
doubt that logical reasoning and a little imagination should suffice for
its creation.

A far more difficult problem occurs when a tactical possibility implies
a complete reversal of strategic policy, and more so when the general
plan is abandoned in favour of a combination without forced material
gain.

Many games have been drawn, or even lost, through an opponent, faced
with a winning attack, tendering an unobtrusive little pawn as a
conciliatory bait: the attacker is content with this "bird-in-the-hand"
and gives up his attack or his strategic plan, which might have
overwhelmed his opponent, only to find that his small gain in material
is insufficient to ensure victory or, worse still, that the initiative
passes to the other side and he loses a game which he ought to have won.
And yet the case in which there is a gain in material is the easiest of
all to assess, for there should be little difficulty in calculating
whether this gain is greater or smaller than the advantage that could be
expected from the normal execution of the original plan. As Alekhine
asserts, a gain in marital should only be a means of improving a
positional advantage. But if a positional advantage should result in
either case? How can the difference be assessed? Supposing we are
carrying out subtle manoeuvres on a flank with the object of paralysing
the enemy forces, and now we find an easy tactical way of securing an
advantage in another quarter, should we renounce our strategic
intentions? Has our opponent overlooked it or is it a trap? Our forces
are ideally placed for the execution of our original plan; will they be
as active in the new circumstances? Will the unexpected gain be
sufficient to win? The whole of our preliminary and imaginative work
becomes futile: will our will to win, our creative power, prevail under
the new conditions? There are so many difficult questions of a
technical, a sporting and a psychological nature to answer.

In Diag. 20 White exercises a vigorous pressure in the centre with
attacking threats against the King. Should Black not exchange pawns at
his KB5, White


                               DIAGRAM 20

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    | #R | #R | #B | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #Q | #Kt|    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #P |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | ^P | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^B |    |    | ^Q |    | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^Kt| ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

             _White:_ Kostitsch; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                              Nice, 1930


will continue with P-B5, and P-KKt4, and a storming advance of all the
pawns: But after the exchange White threatens to advance his KP, and
after ... PxKP; P-Q6, threatens to win the QB; the increased power of
the QP in itself justifies the advance. Against this danger, after
White's first move 1 Q-B3, Black played as follows: 1 ... PxP; 2 PxP,
and now tendered the first bait by 2 ... P-QKt4. Thus White is set the
first problem: should he accept this tactical sacrifice and relax his
pressure in the centre? e.g., 3 PxP,PxP; 4 KtxP, Q-Kt3; 5 Kt-B3, P-B5
_dis. ch_; and Black recovers his pawn or obtains an active and
promising share in the play. White therefore rightly ignored this
tactical diversion. He played: 3 P-K5, and Black offered a second bait
by playing 3 ... P-Kt5; again White can win a pawn by 4 PxKt, PxKt; 5
PxP, PxB; (...KBxP; 6 BxP) 6 PxB(Q)_ch_, KxQ; 7 R-Kt1. Relying on his
positional superiority and the soundness of his strategy, White also
ignored this fresh attempt, but he made the mistake of aiming at the
gain of a Bishop instead of sustaining the existing pressure; instead of
playing 4 Kt-K4, KtxKt; 5 QxKt, P-Kt3; 6 Kt-Q3, B-Kt2; 7 QR-K1 he played
8 Kt-R4, forcing Black to follow his lead, but getting a piece out of
play. Now 4 ... PxP; 5 P-Q6, QxP; 6 QxB, P-K5; and White's Queen is shut
out, which affords Black a decisive advantage.

After having resisted on two occasions the tactical temptation of a gain
in material, White was wrong in yielding the third time; the capture of
the Bishop was made at the cost of the essence of his plan to overwhelm
the enemy in the centre. On that account this example is most
instructive.




                        PART II. THE MIDDLE GAME

                    1. THE STAGES OF THE MIDDLE GAME


The middle game forms a complete whole, distinct from the opening and
the end game which are subject to laws of their own.

In spite of this fundamental unity, the middle game itself is divided
into three well-defined parts. These are the middle game proper, and the
transition from the opening into the middle game and from the middle
game into the end game. In the first of these transitory passages the
tribulations of the preceding phase still weigh heavily, and in the last
the cares and tribulations of the forthcoming end game must be taken
into account. Common sense tells us that these intermediate manoeuvres
must be studied before we concentrate on the complete analysis of the
middle game.


                1. BETWEEN THE OPENING AND THE MIDDLE GAME

_(a) Special Characteristics_


Theoretically, the opening is completed when all the pieces are
developed and ready for concerted action. In practice it ends where "the
book" leaves off. Thus it often happens that, on leaving the beaten
track, we must still think of completing our development, whilst some of
the pieces are already engaged in battle. This state of things sets any
player a problem requiring delicate and elastic treatment. To add to the
difficulties, it is a fact that at this precise stage of the opening the
position is not yet clarified, and it is difficult to settle on any
definite plan of action. Even the most experienced masters have, at this
stage, their moments of hesitation, of groping; they then make waiting
or developing moves, improve their position without incurring any
commitments. For a less mature amateur it is even more difficult. No
wonder that this is the phase in which, not quite knowing what to do,
the average player makes small mistakes which cost him the game. His
game gradually deteriorates and the initiative passes to his opponent.

If we had to deal only with even positions of no pronounced character,
we could study them as and when they occur and there would be no call
for a separate analysis. But what adds to the difficulty of such
positions is the fact that any move we make might lead us against our
will into strategic conceptions of which we do not know the value; not
only that, but every move by our opponent sets us not only tactical
problems, which we must try to solve to our advantage, but strategic
ones also. Whilst in the middle game an isolated move can hardly alter a
sound strategic idea, in the phase at present under consideration, every
move can initiate a different strategic conception, and if we do not
realise this at the moment, we unsuspectingly pursue the chosen path,
which now has become a _cul-de-sac_ leading nowhere.

It is easy thus to realise how difficult is the task which awaits us at
this stage, and, it is not surprising that players are not always equal
to it. We may add that the loss of a tempo in the opening can seldom be
made good, so that waiting moves or even mechanical developing moves can
lead to the loss of a game.

We must be doubly careful at this stage of the game, which undoubtedly
is one of extreme difficulty. It is more difficult than the opening
which is known through the analysis of the theorists, or the middle game
in which we can at least find our way, thanks to the object, more or
less clear, which we have in view.


_(b) Examples of various Openings and their transition into the Middle
Game_

Let us examine the position in Diag. 21, which is known to all chess
players and particularly to those who


                               DIAGRAM 21

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P | #Kt| #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    | ^B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^Q | ^K | ^B |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 


practise the Queen's Gambit. The usual move for Black is here 7 ...
P-B3; after which the possible continuations are sufficiently well
known.

Let us suppose that Black plays a different move and we shall see with
what problems White is immediately faced. First we shall examine 7 ...
P-QKt3.

This move discloses Black's intention of developing a Bishop at QKt2:
therefore our first and immediate reply is 8 PxP, PxP; closing the
diagonal for a long time to come if not permanently. Another
characteristic of the move in question stands revealed: the apparent
weakness of the white squares on Black's Queen's side. The question then
arises: how can White take advantage of this state of things? If he does
not Black will post his B at QKt2 and play ... P-QB4; the secondary
object of ... P-QKt3. Perhaps a concerted action by our Q and KB may
provide the solution; therefore: 9 Q-R4, P-B4; 10 B-Kt5, B-Kt2; 11 B-B6,
BxB; 12 QxB, R-B1; 13 Q-R4, Kt-K5; and White has nothing, his KB, which
alone could have exploited the weakness of the white squares, having
disappeared.

Let us make another attempt: 9 B-Kt5, B-Kt2; 10 Q-R4, P-QR3; 11 BxQKt;
KtxB; 12 BxB, QxB; 13 Q-Kt3, Q-Q3; 14 Castles, QR-K1; and again Black
has achieved equality.

Apparently Black's 7 ... P-QKt3; gives White no opportunity of obtaining
an immediate advantage. White must therefore continue his development,
without, however, losing sight of the fact that after ... P-QB4; Black
will have a majority of pawns on the Q side. White must seek
counter-opportunities elsewhere, and a K side attack is indicated.
Therefore we play: 9 B-Q3, B-Kt2; 10 Castles, P-B4; 11 Kt-K5, P-QR3; 12
P-B4, P-B5; 13 B-Kt1, P-Kt4; 14 P-B3, etc. And now the lines of play on
either side have become clear. It can even be said that White's
strategic plan was thrust upon him by Black's manoeuvres on the Q side.
His moves Kt-K5, and P-B4, become the logical sequel not only to his own
9th move but to the preceding move by Black. And thus we see that a
simple pawn-move may lead to a sudden change in strategic planning if
only sufficient attention is given to it.

Let us now suppose that Black, instead of 7 ... P-QKt3; plays 7 ...
P-QR3; a move, it would seem, without importance--another simple
pawn--advance devoid of direct threats, and yet ... what an immediate
change in the situation! We perceive without much difficulty what Black
intends to do: ... PxP; followed by ... P-Kt4; and ... P-B4; mobilising
the Queen's side.

We can avoid this danger by playing PxP, but we must first ascertain
whether we can derive some tactical advantage from this move. If we
play, for instance, 8 P-B5, Black must reply with 8 ... P-B3; and a
certain weakness at his QKt3 makes itself felt. But can we benefit from
it? Let us try: 9 B-Q3, P-QKt3; 10 P-QKt4, P-QR4; 11 P-QR3, RPxP; 12
RPxP, PxP; 13 KtPxP, Castles; 14 Castles, Q-R4; after which Black has
the initiative on the Q side, and our advanced QBP is of little value.

We must therefore give up this tactical scheme, which promises no real
advantage, and revert to our strategic idea: 8 PxP, PxP; 9 B-Q3, P-B4
(if instead Black plays 9 ... P-B3; his 7 ... P-QR3; proves to be worse
than useless); 10 PxP, KtxP; 11 Castles, Kt-K3; 12 B-R4, and White
maintains the initiative without affording Black the counter-chances
which he obtained in the preceding variation.

We observe how ideas can change in the advanced stage of the opening and
how logical reasoning can show us the proper course to follow.

We shall now show our readers a few examples of this advanced stage in
various openings, without lengthy commentaries. They will illustrate the
correct handling of this intermediate phase of the game.

Diag. 22 represents a familiar position in the "Dragon" variation of the
Sicilian Defence.


                               DIAGRAM 22

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #B | #P | #P | #B | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #Kt| #P |    | #Kt| #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^B |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P | ^Q | ^B |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Heilmann; _Black:_ Vidmar
                             Barmen, 1905


After 1 B-B3, R-B1; 2 Kt-Kt3, B-K3; 3 Kt-Q5, Kt-Q2; 4 P-B3, R-K1; 5
P-QR4, we reach the position in Diag. 23, in which a definite


                               DIAGRAM 23

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #Q | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Kt| #P | #P | #B | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #Kt| #P | #B |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Kt| ^P |    | ^B | ^B |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    | ^Q |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


plan is taking shape and in which White has obtained a real advantage in
that Black's Queen's wing is in jeopardy, whilst the weakness of White's
QKtP and the danger threatened by Black's open QB file have both been
eliminated by the advance of the QBP.

Without entering into a discussion of the relative merits of the play of
the two opponents, let us say, in, passing, that White's advantage is
due to Black's faulty second move. Had he played 2 ... Kt-QR4; (instead
of 2 ... B-K3;) 3 KtxKt, QxKt; 4 KR-Q1, P-Kt5; (Lowenfisch-Cohn,
Carlsbad, 1911) he would have avoided the danger. But 2 ... Q-B2; would
not have helped, e.g.: 3 Kt-Q5, KtxKt; 4 PxKt, Kt-Q1; 5 P-B3; Kt-Kt2; 6
KR-K1, with advantage to White (Marco-Weiss, Match, Vienna, 1895). More
than in any other part of the game, a single inexact move at this stage
is liable to alter the whole aspect of a position.

In the next example (Diag. 24.) from a Dutch Defence, White is uncertain
as to which course to pursue and


                               DIAGRAM 24

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #B | #Q | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^Kt| #Kt|    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^Q |    | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Alekhine
                           Nottingham, 1936


allows Black time and opportunity of completing his development and
seizing the initiative.

The play went as follows: 1 ... B-B3; 2 Kt-QKt5, Q-K2; 3 B-K3, P-QR3; 4
Kt-Q4, B-Q2; 5 QR-B1, QR-K1; 6 P-QKt4, P-QKt3; (see Diag. 25) and now
the respective plans of both


                               DIAGRAM 25

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #B | #Q |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #P |    | #B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^P | ^Kt| #Kt|    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^B |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Q |    | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


players have become apparent: White, wishes to "work" on the Q side,
where Black has a majority of pawns, and to break up the pawn formation,
whilst Black is aiming at the King's side and the centre. A strange move
by White 7 Kt-B3, losing yet another tempo, turns out well for him, as
Black is tempted to indulge in a tactical combination: 7 ... Kt-B6 ; 8
R-Q3, P-B5?; 9 PxP, B-B4; in order to win the exchange. The result is a
bad game for Black: another instance in which a tactical diversion
proves abortive and the renunciation of the strategic plan leads to the
loss of the game.

Diag. 26 shows a position resulting from the Cambridge Springs variation
of the Queen's Gambit. After the initial moves: 1 P-Q4, P-Q4; 2 P-QB4,
P-K3;


                               DIAGRAM 26

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B |    | #K |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #Q |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Kt|    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^Q |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^K | ^B |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Alekhine
                              Match, 1927


3 Kt-QB3, Kt-KB3; 4 B-Kt5, QKt-Q2; 5 P-K3, P-B3; 6 Kt-B3, Q-R4; 7 Kt-Q2,
B-Kt5; 8 Q-B2, PxP; 9 BxKt, KtxB; 10 KtxP, Q-B2; 11 P-QR3, B-K2; White
gradually initiates a struggle round Black's Queen's side pawns, first
of all preventing him from freeing his game by ... P-B4. Black, wishing
to ease the pressure, plays


                               DIAGRAM 27

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #Q |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Q |    | #Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^Kt|    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


the unconsidered move 15 ... P-QR4; after which his pawns at QKt3 and
QB3 become very weak and one of them is irretrievably lost. Here is the
continuation, which leads to the position in Diag. 27: 12 P-KKt3, B-Q2;
13 B-Kt2, Castles KR; 14 P-QKt4, P-QKt3; 15 Castles KR, P-QR4; 16 Kt-K5,
PxP; 17 PxP, RxR; 18 RxR, R-B1; 19 KtxB, QxKt; 20 Kt-R4, Q-Q1; 21 Q-Kt3,
Kt-Q4; 22 P-Kt5, PxP; 23 QxKP, etc.

Here is another example of an Indian Defence. After 1 P-Q4, Kt-KB3; 2
P-QB4, P-K3; 3 KtKB3, P-QKt3; 4 P-KKt3, B-Kt2; 5 B-Kt2, B-Kt5 _ch_; 6
B-Q2, BxB _ch_; 7 QxB, P-Q3; 8 P-Q5, P-K4; we reach the position shown
in Diag. 28, which is of frequent occurrence in this opening.


                               DIAGRAM 28

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R | #Kt|    | #Q | #K |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B | #P |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^Kt| ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^Q | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R | ^Kt|    |    | ^K |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 


The advance of Black's KP clearly indicates the line of play which White
will follow: advance of the KBP to its 4th, and the occupation of KB5 by
his KKt. To prevent this, Black will have to play ... P-Kt3; giving
White another objective, since Black will seek to place his QKt at QB4,
from which square White will dislodge it by P-QKt4. Here are the moves
played in a recent game: 9 Kt-B3, QKt-Q2; 10 Castles KR, Castles; 11
Kt-K1, Q-K2; 12 P-K4, P-Kt3; 13 Kt-B2, P-QR4; 14 Kt-K3, Kt-B4; 15 Q-B2,
B-B1; 16 P-Kt3, B-Q2; 17 P-QR3, Kt-R4; 18 P-QKt4, Kt-QKt2; 19 QR-K1,
Kt-Kt2; 20 Q-Q2, Kt-Q1; 21 P-B4, P-KB3; etc. (Diag. 29). We see that


                               DIAGRAM 29

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Kt|    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #B | #Q |    | #Kt| #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | ^P | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Kt|    | ^Kt|    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Q |    |    | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                     _White:_ Euwe; _Black:_ Flohr
                              Match, 1932


White has initiated an energetic attack, against which, Black has
prepared a stubborn defence, which is reminiscent of a variation of the
Ruy Lopez with two pawns at KB3 and KKt3 and two Knights at KB2 and
KKt2.

Considerations of space prevent us from giving more numerous examples.
But all the positions which we have examined teach the same principle,
namely: that here, to an even greater degree than in the middle game
proper, the strategic idea is of far greater importance than tactical
eventualities or the development of backward pieces. At the same time we
are not yet committed to any particular plan: we can make our choice, we
can even change our original idea. This is an advantage as it confers a
certain freedom on our play, but a disadvantage, in that committing
ourselves to a faulty plan would threaten to ruin the whole of our game.


                  2. BETWEEN MIDDLE GAME AND END GAME

_(a) Special Characteristics_


Entirely different worries beset the player when the end game is in
sight. To be sure, if we have obtained a substantial advantage in
material, for instance a piece, we can embark on the end game with
entire confidence, if not with a feeling of certainty. But the advantage
gained is not great, say only a pawn, or some advantage in position, the
whole outlook is different. We may notice, often too late, that what
appeared in the middle game to be an undoubted "pull," has become in the
end game a weakness, and features in the enemy's position to which we
gave no thought have become a first class weapon in his hands. Imagine
that you have been conducting a violent attack on the K side and that
your opponent has an isolated but passed QRP. In the circumstances you
did not give it a thought and rather looked on it as a weakness. Now
your attack fails to lead to a mate or to bring you any other advantage,
and you see the despised pawn make its way unhindered to the queening
square!

What, is to be done in such cases? What is the remedy? Certainly not an
exaggerated caution, which leads you to think at all times, from the
very opening, about a possible end game. It would be unthinkable; no
attack would succeed, for, in order to conduct a middle game
successfully, all our forces must participate without restrictions and
to the bitter end.

But a counsel of wisdom is this: as soon as the play shows signs of
leading into an end game, reconsider the position from that point of
view. If you feel uneasy about it, defer the end game as long as you can
and utilise the time gained in improving your chances for the ending.
If, on the contrary, your chances are good, bring about the end game as
quickly as you can.

If you are on the defensive in a difficult position, this transition
from the middle to the end game may spell salvation if you know how to
build up your defence to that end. If you have the initiative, however,
and your advantage in the middle game is small, which means that your
direct attack is little likely to win through, then the utmost caution
is required. Avoid all weaknesses which may weigh in the balance in the
end game, and the sooner you start preparations for the ending, the
better.

It is sound strategy to bring about an end game as soon as an advantage
in the middle game proves insufficient to win by direct attack; this
advantage, however, must be kept up into the next phase where it can
lead to success.


_(b) Examples of various Endings and how they arise from the Middle
Game_

It is impossible here to review the various elements of favourable end
game positions as opposed to those of middle game. We must take for
granted that they are familiar to our readers. It will suffice to give a
few examples to illustrate the different aspects of these two phases of
the game.


                               DIAGRAM 30

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #B |    | #R |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #R |    | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^B | ^Kt| ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Reshevsky
                           Nottingham, 1936


In Diag. 30 Black's development is clearly superior. He has 14, moves to
his credit as against 7 by White. At the same time there is no weakness
in White's camp and his chances for the end game are perhaps slightly
better owing to the advance of Black's Q side pawns. White therefore
brought about a succession of exchanges, trying to create some
weaknesses in the black position. Black, on the other hand, realising
that he would have little chance in an end game, tried in vain to
prepare an attack. In so doing he actually created a weakness in his own
camp--an isolated QP on a white square with a white Bishop, leaving
White with a Knight on a strong supporting black square, which should be
a sufficient advantage for an end game.

The play went as follows: 1 P-Kt3, Kt-Q2; 2 RxR, RxR; 3 BxB, KtxB; 4
Q-Q4, Kt-Q4; 5 R-Q1, P-B3; 6 Kt-K1, B-Kt2; 7 BxKt, PxB; 8 P-K3, Q-K5; 9
P-KR4, P-QR4; 10 P-B3, QxQ; 11 RxQ, R-B8; 12 K-B2, R-R8; 13 R-Q2, P-R5;
14 Kt-Q3, R-QKt8; 15 R-Kt2, RxR _ch_; 16 KtxR, which brings us to the
position in Diag. 31. Black has a lost


                               DIAGRAM 31

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B |    |    |    |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |    | ^K |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


game owing to the weakness of his Bishop and of his QKtP and QP. It is
clear that he should at all cost have avoided exchanges, especially of
his Q and his second Rook.

It is most difficult correctly to assess the value of minor pieces in an
end game; which one of two Bishops is it best to preserve; which is the
stronger, a Knight or a Bishop? etc. In most cases the player may know
the answer perfectly well and yet remain with the "wrong" piece, because
he had it before the end game was even considered.

In the position shown in Diag. 32, which was given up as a draw, the
black Knight is clearly superior to


                               DIAGRAM 32

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #K |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | #Kt| ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B | #R |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^P | ^K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Botvinnik; _Black:_ Winter
                            Nottingham, 1936


White's Bishop, and had not this game been played in the last round of
the tournament, it is more than likely that Black would have scored a
win by bringing his King up to the Q side and posting his Knight at QB5.
The position is particularly interesting because White's Bishop looks
very strong. All the black pawns are on white squares and White's centre
pawns on black squares, the best possible arrangement for White. Yet the
Bishop has no scope at all and is reduced to the defensive. The same
applies to the white Rook. On the other hand, the black pieces have
complete freedom of action; they have more space, are aggressive, and
the King can easily co-operate in the struggle.

What has been said of the pieces applies in an equal measure to the
pawns; we have seen how important a part they play in a game of chess.
Very often, however, their function in the end game is totally
different.

Examine the position in Diag. 33. White has a marked advantage and
attacking chances. He did not make the best of the position and failed
to exploit his advantage or to turn it into a decisive one. Finally he
made the mistake of playing a pawn to KB6. At first sight this pawn may
seem to threaten many dangers, including several threats of mate.


                               DIAGRAM 33

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #R | #B |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P |    | #P |    |    | #B |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Q | ^Kt|    | ^B | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^R |    | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Alekhine
                              Match, 1927


By skilful play Black brought about many exchanges, leading into the end
game, with the result that White remained with a doubled pawn requiring
constant attention. Only with the utmost difficulty could White have
obtained a draw against Black's strong passed pawn. As it was, the task
required such precision that the problem proved too much for White, who
lost a game which in its middle phase looked like a probable win for
him.

The following are the moves from the position in Diag. 33: 1 Kt-K5,
P-Kt3; 2 Kt-Kt4, B-Kt2; 3 P-K5, P-KR4; 4 Kt-K3, P-QB4; 5 KtPxP, PxP; 6
P-Q5, PxP; 7 KtxP, Q-K3; 8 Kt-B6 _ch_, BxKt; 9 PxB, RxR _ch_; 10 RxR,
B-B3; and the position in Diag. 34 is reached.


                               DIAGRAM 34

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #B |    | #Q | ^P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Q |    |    | ^B | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


We shall, in the course of our studies, have occasion to examine
positions in which one or the other player deliberately brings about an
end game either in order to increase his advantage or conversely to
minimise the drawbacks of his position. It is well to repeat here that,
even before such a decision is under consideration, there comes a time
when the position must be reviewed from the point of view of end game
possibilities. If we put this advice into practice we shall undoubtedly
save a good number of games which would otherwise be lost. There is no
doubt that frequently we are faced with defeat through carelessly
omitting this eventuality from our calculations.


                      II. SUPERIORITY IN POSITION

                 1. SUPERIORITY IN THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS


Everyone knows what superiority in position means and that such
superiority can exist even when there is a distinct inferiority in some
elements. It is desirable to have the advantage in all three elements,
but it happens far more frequently that an advantage in one element is
accompanied by a disadvantage in another. As we have seen, it can even
happen that an advantage in all three elements fails to insure
positional superiority. In order to recall this fact to the reader's
mind we give an additional example in Diag. 35.


                               DIAGRAM 35

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #Q |    |    | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #B |    | ^P |    | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    | #R | ^B | ^R |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

            _White:_ Miss Menchik; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                              London, 1937


Here White has the advantage in material--two pawns; in time--15 moves
against 10; in space--P's at K5 and KB6. But in spite of mating threats
White's game is lost. Black plays: 1 ... RxKt _ch_; 2 PxR, Q-B3; and
there is no defence against the threatened mate. 3 B-B3, BxR _ch_; etc.

Such cases, however, are exceptional and an advantage in all elements
normally represents a real superiority in position. However, an external
analysis is not sufficient to reveal to us the inner significance of a
position and its character.

It would be unwise to put too much trust in advantages in one or more
elements and to concentrate on their increase. What is of real moment to
us is the advantage in the position as a whole. This, however, can be
ascertained only by an analysis of all the elements. In addition, it is
not sufficient to realise that the position is superior; it is essential
to find the exact degree of superiority and in what it consists. If the
advantage be but slight, it is necessary to proceed slowly, without
forcing matters or taking risks. If, however, the advantage be
overwhelming, there is justification (one might almost say it was a
duty) for initiating a vigorous attack, for an advantage which is not
exploited is frittered away and more likely than not passes to the
adversary. That is a moral obligation in chess if we are to believe
Steinitz and Lasker.

Finally, one should realise with the utmost clearness in which
particular element superiority exists, as the manner of its treatment
varies in each of the three elements; an advantage in space cannot be
increased in the same manner as an advantage in time.

A study of positions in which advantages in various elements exist will
serve as an introduction to an analysis of the line of thought to be
followed in superior positions and of the means available for exploiting
such superiority. This will allow us to reduce our remarks to a minimum
and merely to quote the moves played with a few variations. We shall
thus be able to give more numerous examples.

One could ignore positions in which there is an advantage in material,
for there seems little to be said about a position in which one player
has an extra piece or pawn. Yet such positions frequently present a
common characteristic.

A player, having gained an advantage in material, is apt to assume the
defensive, playing a passive game or trying to bring about an end game.
Very often these tactics lead to disaster or, at best, to a draw. The
opponent takes the initiative and succeeds in obtaining a positional
advantage which makes up for the material he has lost. It would be
equally futile for the stronger side to embark on risky and hazardous
undertakings: "Only the weak trust to chance." But there is no doubt
that an advantage in material, be it only that of a pawn, justifies far
more audacious measures, both in attack and defence, than would be
permissible in a perfectly even position.

The difficulty in these cases resides precisely in the fact that very
often a more or less marked positional advantage sets off the lack of
material. We may have to exploit an extra pawn in spite of an adverse
positional advantage.

In the position shown in Diag. 36 Black has an extra pawn, his only
advantage, for he has two pieces out of play on the Q side, whilst on
the K side White is conducting a dangerous attack. In addition White is
a tempo ahead. Suppose for a moment that Black were without a QRP; with
equal forces White would have all the advantage. With a passed pawn and
the attack


                               DIAGRAM 36

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #R |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Kt|    |    | ^P | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #B |    | #P |    |    | ^Kt| ^Q |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^B |    |    | ^R |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Marshall; _Black:_ Capablanca
                              Match, 1909


he could at once aim at forcing a win. As it is he has to proceed slowly
and methodically, as is demanded by the small advantage he possesses,
for he would be lost as soon as the adversary's Q side pawns were able
to start their advance. Black's unobtrusive QRP hampers White's game and
even affects his K side attack.

White therefore plays:

                       1  Kt-R5          P-Kt3
                       2  P-Q6

Black cannot capture this pawn as he would lose his QR.

                       2  ...            Q-K3

Without his extra pawn Black's defence would be wholly inadequate as
White would then exchange Queens, doubling and isolating pawns on the K
file, as well as threatening to win a pawn by Kt-B6 _ch_. But as matters
stand, Black's extra pawn, though inactive at the moment, becomes a real
threat as soon as White ceases to attack or permits exchanges to take
place. This shows that the player who has an advantage in material can
take a certain amount of risk and can allow his position to be weakened
in a manner which, without his extra material, might easily prove fatal.

                       3  Q-Kt5          K-R1

The pawn is still immune from capture: 3 ... RxP; 4 RxR, QxR; 5 Q-R6,
Q-B1; 6 Kt-B6 _ch_, and 7 QxP _mate_.

                       4  Kt-B6          RxP
                       5  RxR            QxR

And thus Black has won a second pawn and is still able to cope with
White's attack.

Another way of turning a material advantage to account is to surrender
it at the proper time in exchange for a substantial advantage in
position. This applies in particular to the opening, where it is bad
policy to strive at all costs to maintain some material advantage. In
that phase of the game, positional considerations are paramount: that is
the idea underlying all gambits. We must warn, however, against such a
surrender being made without proper thought, as a matter of routine. In
chess no effort should turn out to have been made in vain, and no
advantage must be surrendered before it has been, as far as possible,
turned to account.

In giving our attention to positions which show an advantage in either
time or space, we immediately notice a great difference. Such an
advantage is definitely positional, and unlike the advantage in
material, it confers special characteristics on the position.

Let us first examine the advantage in time. As already stated, this is
the hardest case to diagnose. It is even more difficult to preserve. It
is a curious characteristic of this element that it cannot be increased
indefinitely: there comes a time when our opponent will even up matters.
It cannot even be maintained at a steady level, for every move which
fails to increase the lead allows our opponent to make up leeway in his
development, and thus to improve matters for himself as regards the
element of time. In addition, an advantage in time is in itself
insufficient to enforce a win. It must be transformed into an advantage
in another element. This is the most critical moment which often decides
the fate of the game, and one where we always risk forfeiting our
advantage.

The main thing in chess is, as we have stated before, the conflict of
chess ideas. But, even so, it is always important to realise clearly the
exigencies of the three elements, for on these our conduct of the game
very frequently depends. If we fail to realise in which particular
element we have an advantage, we may have the most brilliant ideas, but
they must of necessity be aimless, and we shall be unable to select the
proper method of carrying them out.

Let us examine Diag. 37.

This position illustrates our point particularly well: Black has only an
advantage in time, whereas White has won a pawn and is far superior in
space. Moreover, White has not a single weakness, and whatever Black may
hope to achieve could only have this advantage in time as a basis.

As usual, the characteristics of the situation are ascertained after
comparing the two positions. In this case the difference between the
Bishops is important. White's Bishop is as yet undeveloped whilst the
black Bishop occupies a long open diagonal, aiming at the Kt and at the
KtP behind it. If, on the other hand, the Kt moves,


                               DIAGRAM 37

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #Q |    | #P | #B | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^Q |    | #P | #P |    | #Kt| #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

               _White:_ Nimzowitsch; _Black:_ Capablanca
                          St. Petersburg, 1914


the QRP is in jeopardy. White will therefore require some considerable
time to complete his development. Before the Kt is able to move it will
be necessary to guard the QRP, defend the Kt with the B, and move the
QR; then only will the Bishop obtain any freedom of action. Thus Black's
advantage in time can become still more considerable.

But were Black content to watch his opponent's efforts to extricate his
Q side without taking action, White would carry out his plan and, having
at last mobilised his Bishop and, incidentally, made up for the time
lost in winning a pawn, he would probably proceed to win the game on the
strength of his extra pawn.

What is Black to do? A further characteristic of the position now
appears: the two open files on the Q side. On these files Black will be
able to attack the pawns, and White's extra pawn will continue to
require protection. If, however, Black simply brings up a Rook for the
attack, he will lose still further time without making any real threat,
and White's Queen will be able to return into camp. He must play a more
subtle game, limiting White's freedom of action by constant attacks and
varied threats. Hence his first move:

                       1  ...            KR-K1

He attacks the KP, which immobilises White's Knight and compels White to
make a defensive move.

                       2  Q-Q3

White brings back his Q into his lines, but in so doing he relieves his
pressure on Black's QBP and restores to the black Queen her freedom of
action. A move such as 2 P-KB3, which will sooner or later have to be
played, would be preferable. A player who is at a disadvantage in point
of time should keep up any available threat.

                       2  ...            Q-K3

A fresh threat.

                       3 P-B3

Black's first attack is at an end. It is clear that it was only meant as
a demonstration. What must he do now? The Rook's move liberated the
Queen, the Queen moved to make room for the Knight. As the attack
against the KP is at an end, the Knight, _via_ Q2, K4, QB5, will attack
the Q side and the QKtP, still further impeding the development of
White's B. The black Knight retreats temporarily but opens the way for
the Bishop, which also attacks the Q side.

                       3  ...            Kt-Q2

White tries to parry the threat shown above by developing his pieces.

                       4   B-Q2           Kt-K4
                       5   Q-K2           Kt-B5

Now the QKtP is threatened. If 6 P-QKt3, KtxB; 7 QxKt, Q-K4; etc.

                       6   QR-Kt1         R-R1

Again a threat. As can be easily seen, Black has managed to place his
Rook on this file by means of continual threats, therefore without loss
of time. All his pieces are now directed against the Q side, where the
main action is being fought; by combining a threat with every move, he
prevents his opponent from developing his pieces, whilst warding off
these threats. So far he has succeeded admirably. Here, for instance, he
threatens to win a pawn after 7 P-QKt3, KtxB.

                       7   P-QR4          KtxB

In order to bring the Queen into the game.

                       8   QxKt           Q-B5

Again P-QKt3, is not feasible because of the threat to the Knight.
Incidentally, Black threatens to win the QRP by ... BxKt; and if 9
Kt-K2, the QRP is lost. The best course in the circumstances would be 9
Kt-Q1, giving up the extra pawn but relieving the adverse pressure.

                       9   KR-Q1          KR-Kt1

Here Black could have won a pawn by ... BxKt. The present threat,
however, is to win two pawns by ... RxKtP; RxR, BxKt; Q-B1, BxR; QxB,
QxRP; but then White could reply with Q-Kt7, threatening the backward QB
pawns.

The position is shown in Diag. 38. Summing up its main points, we see
that Black has gained only one move, but that, on the other hand, he has
gained much space: All his pieces occupy open lines and his Queen
dominates the board. His advantage in time is now transferred to the
element of space. It only remains for him to


                               DIAGRAM 38

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R | #R |    |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #P | #B | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #P |    |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | #Q |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^P | ^Q |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^R |    | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


exchange it for a gain in material and the game is won for him.

                      10  Q-K3           R-Kt5

Threatening B-Q5.

                      11  Q-Kt5          B-Q5 _ch_
                      12  K-R2           R(R1)-Kt1

Threatened with the loss of a piece, White is compelled to give up the
exchange.

                      13 RxB             QxR

and the game is won for Black.

The most striking feature in this example is Black's admirable conduct
of the game. The manner in which he exploited his advantage in time is
beyond praise. Nearly every move contained a threat, which is the
correct method of turning to account an advantage in time as opposed to
an advantage in space, as we shall show later.

It is, of course, not essential that each threat should be direct and
immediate: they may be distant threats, perhaps merely indicated by the
moves as future contingencies. This is easy to understand. The player
who is in arrears in time has only to complete his development to
eliminate all pressure and two or three quiet moves are often sufficient
for this purpose. This the opponent must seek, at all costs, to prevent.
Constant threats are the best means to this end, although it is clear
that every move must be subordinated to a general plan.

A difficult moment arises in these manoeuvres when a piece has to be
transferred to another field, which necessarily gives the opponent some
breathing space. In the present example this difficulty is overcome with
consummate mastery. Another piece is unmasked at the critical time with
a new and immediate threat.

Another delicate problem arises when the advantage in time is to be
transferred to another element. This process is also carried out
exceedingly well here; the act of transformation is hardly noticeable.

The student would do well to study this game with the greatest care: it
is instructive in the highest degree.

All these processes will stand out even more clearly when we compare
them with those employed in positions in which the advantage to be
exploited is one of space.

Where an advantage in space exists, it means that the opponent's
movements are restricted; his pieces lack space in which to radiate
their full power. It is therefore unnecessary to threaten the adversary;
it is sufficient to prevent his pieces from coming out from their narrow
space by controlling the squares in front of his position. The advantage
in space is less easily lost, and can increase almost indefinitely. It
is often permissible to lose time so long as no pieces are actually
withdrawn, and the adverse forces are still further restricted by quiet
manoeuvring. It is not necessary to transform this advantage into a
material one, and so this very critical moment in the exploitation of
advantages in time does not arise here. On the other hand, there is
another and equally anxious time when the opponent, whose position is
becoming more and more restricted, decides to give up some material in
order to relieve the pressure. It then happens not infrequently that he
is able to assume the initiative when our well-advanced forces are badly
placed to resist this sudden and unexpected onslaught.


                               DIAGRAM 39

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B |    | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P |    | #Kt| #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P | #B |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Capablanca
                         St. Petersburg, 1914


Diag. 39 will show this more clearly. Here time and force are equal on
either side, but White has the advantage in space with two centre pawns
on the fourth rank and two well-developed Knights. Black's forces occupy
the first three ranks, with little hope of enlarging their scope. His
greatest concern is the undeveloped state of his QB. A useful post would
be at Kt2, from where, supported by the Rook, it would attack the KP. If
this pawn advances, a splendid square at Black's KB4 becomes available
for his Kt.

As White has no threats at his disposal, except possibly P-B5-B6, which
cannot be entertained for some time, he must proceed cautiously and
continue a policy of restriction.

Black has an immediate threat, by ... B-QB4; pinning a Knight and
occupying a fine diagonal. And now White plays: Kt-Kt3. A strange move
indeed, for not only is it devoid of threats but White has actually
retreated one of his developed pieces! An entirely different procedure
from that shown in the preceding example (advantage in time). The
explanation is that, with an advantage in space, it is less important to
threaten the enemy than to prevent him from extricating himself from his
cramped position and to deny him the possibility of making any threats
himself. In the present instance the white Knight keeps the Bishop from
his QB4 and also avoids being pinned.

                       1  Kt-Kt3         P-B3

The object of this move is not only to prevent here and now the advance
P-B5-B6, but principally to make the development of the QB at Kt2
possible and to open the long diagonal by ... P-QB4; which, at the
moment, is not feasible because of the threat to the KB after P-K5. In
addition, White must reckon with the possibility of Black's QB being
developed at K3 or even KKt5 now that a sanctuary is available for it at
its B2.

                       2  P-B5

White forestalls this threat at once without himself threatening
anything in particular unless it be the establishment, in the distant
future, of a Kt at K6. Incidentally, White creates a weakness for
himself at K5 for the sake of maintaining the pressure and of preserving
his advantage in space.

                       2  ...           P-QKt3

Black prepares the development of his B at Kt2, now that KKt5 is no
longer available. His position is one of great difficulty. If he keeps
the Bishop on its diagonal QB1-KR6 in order to guard his K3, his
position would remain restricted and White, after B-B4, and QR-Q1; would
have a splendid and untrammelled game, without any counter-chances for
Black. On the other hand, after ... B-Kt2; Black's K3 remains
defenceless and becomes a target for a virulent assault as the sequel
shows.

                       3  B-B4

To begin with, the KB is to be eliminated, and as the exchange is
unavoidable, Black should have made it himself in order to gain a tempo
and to avoid the creation of a weakness at his Q3. He decides, however,
to persevere in his development as planned and in the end he has to
defend two weaknesses instead of one.

                       3  ...            B-Kt2
                       4  BxB            PxB
                       5  Kt-Q4

The first threat after four quiet moves. And what is the threat? Simply
to post his Kt at K6. White's manoeuvring has cost him a _tempo_, but in
return he has increased his stranglehold. Black's only remaining chance
lies in his attack on the KP and he cannot allow the white Kt to settle
permanently on its K6. Hence the necessity of advancing his QBP and QP.

He cannot prevent the Knight from moving to K6, threatening Q8;
therefore he must move the QR at once if it is to get into play at all.

                       5  ...            QR-Q1
                       6  Kt-K6          R-Q2

Observe that in achieving his aim White has made three "moves" less than
his adversary. It is true that Black's gain in time--advance of the Q
side pawns--is of no value. But it remains a fact: we have noted a
similar occurrence in the preceding example, where an increase of the
advantage in time was accompanied by a loss in space.

It is obvious that White will now attack the weak point at Black's Q3.

                       7  QR-Q1

How can the attack on the QP be parried? Either by guarding or by
advancing it: this advance cannot take place at once as the pawn would
be isolated and soon lost. Therefore ... P-B4; would first be called for
in order to keep his Q4 under control of the Bishop. White must now
guard his BP by P-KKt4, e.g.: 7 ... P-B4; 8 P-KKt4, P-Q4; 9 PxP, BxP; 10
KtxB, RxKt; 11 Kt-B7, RxR; 12 RxR, R-QB1; 13 R-Q7, and wins.

It follows that the QP cannot advance and Black is reduced to a passive
defence: such is the result of White's strategy.

                       7  ...            Kt-B1
                       8  R-B2           P-QKt4
                       9  KR-Q2          QR-K2
                      10  P-QKt4

Anticipating the threat ... PB4.

                      10  ...            K-B2
                      11  P-QR3

There is a basic difference between this game and the last. There are no
threats from White, who merely continues to strengthen his position,
restricting his opponent more and more and nullifying his attempts to
free his game. Such tactics are possible only when there is an advantage
in space and not in time.

Now at last we reach the critical moment mentioned above. Black has the
opportunity of giving up the exchange for a pawn (11 ... RxKt; 12 PxR
_ch_, RxP;) and with the attack on the KP he would obtain unexpected
chances.

To prove the soundness or otherwise of his sacrifice, it would be
necessary to play the game anew. But it can be stated that Black would
remain with B, P and 3 moves for a Rook whilst White's advantage in
space would have miraculously and suddenly disappeared. There is no
doubt, however, that Black having let this chance pass by, has delivered
himself into the hands of the enemy, who can now impose his will.

                      11  ...            B-R1
                      12  K-B2           R-R2
                      13  P-Kt4

The decisive assault now begins. White's advantage is overwhelming and
the defence must break down somewhere.

                      13  ...            P-R3
                      14  R-Q3           P-QR4

Useless as well as damaging. The opening of lines is of benefit only to
the stronger party.

                      15  P-KR4          PxP
                      16  PxP            R(R2)-K2
                      17  K-B3           R-Kt1
                      18  K-B4           P-Kt3
                      19  R-Kt3          P-Kt4 _ch_
                      20  K-B3           Kt-Kt3
                      21  PxP            RPxP

The continuation is of no real interest for our purpose,  for Black,
having lost his advantage in time, has nothing to play for. White simply
goes on demolishing his opponent's position.

                      22  R-R3           R-Q2
                      23  K-Kt3          K-K1
                      24  QR-KR1         B-Kt2
                      25  P-K5

At last the decisive break-through! White eliminates his weak pawn, the
idea being to put the Knight in its place, threatening the King and both
Rooks.

                      25  ...            QPxP
                      26  Kt-K4          Kt-Q4
                      27  Kt(K6)-B5      B-B1
                      28  KtxR           BxKt
                      29  R-R7

and White won.

This game admirably demonstrates how an advantage in space should be
increased without having recourse to threats, which are the mainstay of
operations where an advantage in time is concerned.

This subject cannot be exhausted by two examples. Others can be found in
which the win is achieved in a different manner. But the characteristic
features of the mode of treatment are illustrated sufficiently clearly
in these two cases for the amateur to master these difficulties in his
own play.

And now we can pass on to the next section dealing with the evolving of
an idea when exploiting a superior position.


             2. VARIOUS MEANS OF EXPLOITING AN ADVANTAGE


When a thorough analysis has revealed to us that we possess a certain
advantage, a good many questions remain to be settled. It is not
sufficient to know that we have the advantage, nor in what it consists,
nor how big it is. Numerous problems demand to be solved and the same
analysis usually provides the solution.

It certainly is a matter of satisfaction if the fate of the game can be
decided by a brilliant combination, nor should one omit to make sure
whether such an opportunity offers itself, or at least some tactical
possibility. But such cases are of rare occurrence, and everyone knows
that more often than not a long and arduous struggle is necessary in
order to secure the victory. Did not Dr. Tarrasch say that the hardest
task is to win a won game?

The lay-out of our own and of enemy pieces must be carefully examined
and compared: this will usually indicate the character and venue of the
action which is to be undertaken. We can thus ascertain whether we have
immediate or future attacking chances, and whether or no an attack may
lead to a mate. This is a question of the greatest importance, for if
there is a probable mate no sacrifice is too great and every resource
must be drawn upon to attain this object, even to neglecting all other
parts of the board no matter at what hazard.

Where there is no chance of a mate--which can happen even in the case of
a K side attack--caution is necessary; we may conduct an energetic
attack, but if the result is but the gain of a pawn, we cannot afford to
sacrifice, nor must we submit to a positional disadvantage on another
part of the board.

Having established our opponent's chief weakness, which becomes our,
objective, we must settle the means of reaching it. Are the pieces alone
sufficient? Will an assault by pawns be indispensable? Must we sacrifice
in order to open a file? etc. There are very many cases where our
available forces, are not suited for the attack on a particular
weakness. An adverse pawn on our KR7 may be weak, but we lack a white
Bishop! A pawn at KKt7 is likely to fall, and we find that we cannot
post a Knight at KB5 or KR5.

We may not be able to solve all these problems as soon as an attack
seems to be both feasible and advantageous, but the solution will occur
to us gradually in the course of play. Therein lies the difference
between the strong player and the rank-and-file. The average player
fails even to consider all these questions, whilst the expert attends to
them early, at times even subconsciously.

Let us examine the position in Diag. 40. There are numerous good moves
and possible plans at White's disposal.


                               DIAGRAM 40

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #K | #R |    |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P |    | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P |    |    |    |    | #Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    | #B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^Q | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Janowski
                         St. Petersburg, 1914


White played 1 R-Kt1, and Dr. Tarrasch remarked in the book of the
Tournament: "Reveals with brutal frankness the plan of attack against
which nothing can be done. The QKtP, supported by the QRP, is to storm
the hostile King's embattlements, impregnable though they may seem." 1
... P-B3; 2 P-Kt4; Kt-B2; 3 P-QR4, BxKt; 4 RxB, P-QKt3; 5 P-Kt5, BPxP; 6
PxP, P-QR4; 7 Kt-Q5, Q-B4; 8 P-B4, and the eminent annotator adds:
"Again played with great precision. The attack is to be continued with
Q-B3, and P-Q4." What has been achieved here with such apparent ease
depends, in difficult positions, on a conception of the utmost accuracy.
Side by side with a general plan of our play, we must have a plan of
attack which is equally clear. The average player is content to make
more or less plausible moves, advancing his pieces in the general
direction of the objective, without troubling overmuch about the
fundamentals of his attack. This is a pity; any efforts we make in
obtaining a clear conception of the intended attack will reward us by
the rapid and energetic development of the attack itself.

Similar questions are raised in the case of positional manoeuvres,
though here the same degree of precision is neither necessary nor
attainable. For here the moves of neither player are compulsory; there
are no direct threats, and there often is no clearly-defined objective.

But nevertheless we must make every effort to achieve some degree of
clarity in our ideas; here is some advice which is entirely practical.
As the general plan is usually carried out step by step, and as an
attack is developed in successive waves, so can we make our task easier
by concentrating in turns on immediate objects, such as the occupation
of a certain square, the opening of a line, pinning a piece or
exchanging another, etc. The basic plan, however, must be there, for,
otherwise, how could these various manoeuvres benefit us? Matters are
easier when, having the advantage, we are fully aware of the location
and extent of a weakness in the hostile camp. It is then, in the main, a
case of deciding on what means to employ in order to reach and to
undermine it.

Besides ordinary attacking manoeuvres there are other means of
establishing and increasing an advantage, namely, combinations or,
conversely, simplification of a position by exchanging material; but
these must be looked upon as special cases. We must not forget the
transition into the end game, of which we have already spoken. This is
of particular moment when, in the middle game, our position can be
threatened in spite of our advantage. Moreover, an advantage (say of a
pawn) is, in the nature of things, useless in the middle game, but of
the greatest value in an end game. Bearing in mind all we have said on
the subject, it is important that the entry into the end game stage
should be deliberate and at the free will of the player who has the
advantage and to whom it will be profitable, and not merely a fortuitous
happening or a disagreeable surprise, by which the advantage disappears
or loses all significance. The average player is prone to saying, "It
had to be," "It so happened"--he should be able to say, "I willed it,"
"It is done."


_(a) The Attack_


Methods of attack are numerous and varied; we could hardly enumerate
them all. A separate book on the subject would be needed to study them
in detail. It is sufficient for our purpose to recall their essential
characteristics.

As the most decisive and interesting attacks are those which are
directed against the King, it makes a vast difference whether the. King
is in the centre or on one of the wings. It makes little difference,
comparatively speaking, whether the King has castled on the K side or on
the Q side. But his position in the centre is always hazardous, until he
can escape into safety on one of the wings. The attacker has therefore
an interest in keeping the hostile King in the centre, for once he has
castled he is comparatively safe; there is, at any rate, no safer place.
The pawns, too, are treated differently according to whether the King is
attacked in the centre or on the flank. The centre pawns are, as a
general rule, advanced, and will have to be exchanged in order to open
the files for the Rooks. The wing pawns, on the contrary, are mostly on
their original squares and can be either disregarded or used actively in
an assault.

We have here a second basic difference: the pawns can take an active
part in the attack or the attack can be carried out entirely by pieces.
The latter is only successful if our pieces in the critical sector are
more numerous than the opponent's, in fact, so much so that, in addition
to overcoming the resistance of the defending pieces, they can also cope
with the pawns which protect the position.

Where the attacker's pawns play an active role they must be thrown
forward ruthlessly against the hostile position: they drive back on
their way all the defender's pieces and destroy the hostile barrier of
pawns, giving themselves up in order to open the way for the attacker's
pieces, which would otherwise remain masked.

The few examples shown hereafter will elucidate these various forms of
attack.

In Diag. 41 White is conducting a K side attack and Black is attacking
on the Q side. White's is a mating attack, which is _ipso facto_ of
greater importance, and


                               DIAGRAM 41

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #B | #Q | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt|    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    | ^Kt| ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^B | ^Q |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Forgacz; _Black:_ Tartakower
                         St. Petersburg, 1909


sacrifices are indicated in order to bring it to a successful end.
White's position appears to be admirable and full of promise, but his
pawn-chain keeps all lines closed so that his pieces cannot take an
effective part in the attack. On the other hand, Black's pawn-formation
is in no way weakened and his inferiority really lies in the absence of
defending pieces near the King's field. It follows therefore that White
must by some means force through some of his pieces for the attack in
order to decide the issue. Any loss of time, however, would give Black
the chance of consolidating his position by ... P-B4; and ... P-Kt3;
after which the QR, placed at QR2, could participate in the defence of
the K side.

Energetic action is therefore an urgent necessity.

                       1  P-B5           KPxP
                       2  P-Kt4          BPxP
                       3  Kt-Kt5

This manoeuvre provokes a weakening of Black's pawn position. If ...
P-R3; 4 Kt-R7, and after the Rook has moved out of danger, 5 Kt-B6 _ch_,
etc.

                       3  ...            P-Kt3
                       4  R-B6

White forthwith occupies the newly-created "hole" with a fourfold threat
to Black's KBP as well as a threat of KtxRP, in cooperation with the
Queen.

                       4  ...            K-Kt2
                       5  QR-KB1         B-K1
                       6  Q-B4           Kt-Q1
                       7  P-K6

A third pawn is offered in sacrifice, but it evidently
cannot be taken. The white pieces are perfectly safe on
the black squares.

                       7  ...            R-R3
                       8  Q-K5           K-R3
                       9  QR-B5          BPxP
                      10  Kt-B7 _ch_     QxKt
                      11  R-R5 _ch_      K-Kt2
                      12  RxP _mate_

Let us now examine a position (Diag. 42) in which the pawns take an
active part in the attack. Here White has only three pieces available to
carry out the necessary manoeuvre, but he has four pawns to two on the K
side, where, moreover, Black's pawn position is weakened. There are
Bishops of opposite colours, so that on black squares Black's pawns are
invulnerable. The task of eliminating Black's Bishop falls to the white
pawns which are moving up to the assault. The KBP must move to B6, and
the breaking up of the adverse K side pawns must therefore be left to
the KRP.


                               DIAGRAM 42

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    | #R |    |    |    |    |    | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Q |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    | #B | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B |    | ^Q |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^R |    |    |    | ^K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Tarrasch; _Black:_ Schlechter
                              Match, 1911


                       1  P-Kt4          R-KB1
                       2  P-Kt5          B-Kt2
                       3  K-Kt3

A subtle move with a twofold object: to protect the KBP, and to promote
the advance of the KRP, without Black's Queen being able to reach her
KKt5. It is, however, a mistake, as Black could obtain a draw by
perpetual check as follows: 3 ... RxP; 4 KxR, B-K4 _ch_; etc. This is a
striking example of the neglect of a tactical chance.

                       3  ...            Q-R2

A bad move which leaves the Queen far away from the main battlefield. At
Q2 she retained the option of supporting the advance at an opportune
moment of the QP or, alternatively, she would even be better placed at
K1, from where a check at K4 would be threatened after White's P-B5.

There is, however, no good move against the avalanche of pawns; any move
would have been immediately refuted.

                       4  R-B1           P-R3

The object of this move is not the opening of the KR file, for in
inferior positions it is in the highest degree unwise for the defender
to allow the opening of lines. But in this case, were White to take the
RP, Black's Bishop would recapture and get back into play; White's
strategy would be set at naught. By the advance in the text Black
desired rather to close the KR file against the advance of White's KRP.
The drawback is that Black's KKtP is now weak and unprotected.

                       5  P-R4           P-R4

Now the advance of White's KBP is assured.

                       6  P-B5           PxP
                       7  PxP            R-K1

Although ... B-K4 _ch_; liberated the Bishop, it was no better than the
text-move, as the RP cannot be defended.

                       8  P-B6           BxP

If ...R-K6 _ch_; 9 QxR, PxQ; 10 R-B8 _ch_, followed by B-B2, and mate. A
simple strategic combination.

                       9  PxB            Q-Q2

Here again ... R-K6 _ch_; was not feasible because of the same
sacrifice, with mate one move later.

                      10  Q-Kt6          Resigns.

Where pawns take no active part in the attack, the heavy task of bearing
the brunt of the contest devolves on the pieces, which must weaken the
enemy position and prepare the decisive action.

This type of attack is far more difficult to conduct, but also less
hazardous, than when pawns are in cooperation, because manoeuvres by
pieces do not weaken a position in the same permanent manner as does an
advance by pawns. The position in Diag. 43 is of particular interest,
because the two Knights are the most


                               DIAGRAM 43

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R | #R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P | #B |    | #P | #P | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #P | #Kt|    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    | ^Q | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Q |    | ^P |    | ^Kt|    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Bernstein
                          San Sebastian, 1911


active pieces, and an attack by two Knights, practically unsupported, is
something of a rarity.

There are already some weaknesses in the black camp, particularly the
KKtP and KRP and the square at KKt4. All these weaknesses are on black
squares, which are controlled by the white Queen supported by the two
Knights, standing, of course, on white squares. A fresh attack on the
KKtP would jeopardise Black's game for this pawn cannot advance as the
KRP is attacked, and if it is captured, Black's KB3 would very soon be
occupied by a white Knight.

                       1  Kt(K2)-Kt3     QxBP

Threatening the exchange of Queens by ... Q-B4.

                       2  R-QB1          Q-Kt7

Hoping to use the Queen for the defence of KKt2 and of the black squares
on the K side generally, which White at once prevents.

                       3  Kt-R5          R-KR1
                       4  R-K2           Q-K4
                       5  P-B4           Q-Kt4
                       6  Kt(B5)xKtP

Threatening to win the exchange. The Knight cannot be captured because
of 7 Kt-B6 _ch_. If 6 ... R-Q1; 7 KtxKt, and there is no defence against
Q-Q4, or Q-QB3. The black-square policy triumphs.

                       6  ...            Kt-B4
                       7  KtxR           BxKt
                       8  Q-QB3          P-B3
                       9  KtxP _ch_ and wins.

Pieces as well as pawns can be sacrificed in order to disrupt the
hostile position, but this can only happen when there is an overwhelming
superiority of available attacking over defending pieces. In such cases
there will be an adequate number of pieces left to enforce a mate,
provided they have sufficiently rapid access to the hostile K position.

The position is Diag. 44 is too well known to require any comment. It
will be sufficient to quote the moves of this brilliant combination,
which is the prototype of others of the same kind.

                       1  BxP _ch_       KxB
                       2  QxKt _ch_      K-Kt1
                       3  BxP            KxB
                       4  Q-Kt4 _ch_     K-R2
                       5  R-B3           P-K4
                       6  R-R3 _ch_      Q-R3
                       7  RxQ _ch_       KxR
                       8  Q-Q7 and wins.


                               DIAGRAM 44

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B |    |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #Q |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #P | ^B |    |    | #Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    | ^B | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^P | ^P | ^Q |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                    _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Bauer
                            Amsterdam, 1889


Attacks in the centre are no less interesting, although, as a rule, they
are easier to handle. Examine Diag. 45. The essentials of the position
are as follows:

Black's King is still on his original square in the


                               DIAGRAM 45

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B |    | #K | #B | #R |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    | #Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^B | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^B |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^Kt| ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Spielmann; _Black:_ Rti
                             Abbazia, 1912


centre. His QP is the mainstay of his defence; were it to fall, then the
white centre pawns would decide the game. Black's King might save
himself by castling on the Q side: this must be prevented. Before he can
castle, the QB must move, for preference to K3 in order to support the
QP: this move must also be prevented or at least its execution must be
made difficult.

To sum up, the objective is the advance of the central pawns and the
opening of the centre files facing the King, and the means to this end
are the open QKt file and the Bishops' diagonals.

                       1  R-Kt1          Kt-Q1
                       2  P-B4           B-K3
                       3  Kt-K3          PxP

If instead of this move Black were to protect his QP by 3 ... P-QB3;
White would exchange pawns and renew the attack with the pawn now at
QB2. He would in any event obtain an open diagonal for an attack on the
King by B-QKt5.

                       4  B-K4

Not only attacking the QKtP, but threatening to advance the QP,
attacking the B, which being at last developed, becomes a target for the
white forces.

                       4  ...            P-QB3
                       5  P-Q5

Here White could have sacrificed the exchange with 5 RxP, with an easy
win.

                       5  ...            B-QB4

Prolonging the agony by the sacrifice of a piece.

                       6  K-R1           BxKt
                       7  PxB            KtxP

White threatened Q-Q7 _ch_.

                       8  BxB            QxP
                       9  BxKRP          R-R1
                      10  KRxP           R-Q1
                      11  QxKtP          QxB
                      12  B-Kt6 and wins.

All these attacking manoeuvres are comparatively simple. There are far
more complicated examples, in which the play is extremely difficult, and
where the basic plan, aiming at the break-up of the defence, requires
minute investigation. A continuous search for new tactical points is
necessary and advantage must be taken of every opportunity and of every
weakness in the enemy camp, in order to increase the pressure.

The following example (Diag. 46) is much more complex.

The chief points to be noticed are: the open KR file, the weakened
diagonal QR2-KKt8, and the Kt at KB5. By forcing the exchange of Black's
QB, White weakens the whole of the white squares in the enemy camp and


                               DIAGRAM 46

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt|    | #R |    | #B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B |    | #P | #P | ^Kt| #Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^Q | ^P | ^K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Marshall
                              Match, 1909


establishes his Queen there. Together with the pressure on two open
lines this is sufficient to win.

                       1  Q-K3           P-B3
                       2  B-R4           Kt-K2
                       3  B-Kt3          P-B3
                       4  Q-Kt3          P-R4

The object of this move is not an attack on White's KB but the defence
of the K side by the QR from QR2. For this purpose the second rank must
be cleared of all forces.

                       5  P-R4           Kt-B2
                       6  B-K3           P-Kt3
                       7  R-R4           K-B1
                       8  QR-R1          Kt-Kt1

White has reached the desired position. Nearly all his pieces can
participate in the attack. It is now a question of breaking down Black's
power of resistance by forcing the exchange of his Bishop, and by
bringing into active play his own QB, which hitherto held only a
watching brief.

                       9  Q-B3           BxKt
                      10  KtPxB          R-Q3
                      11  Q-R5           R-R2
                      12  Q-Kt6

With the elimination of Black's Bishop the white squares have become
weak and are at once occupied by enemy forces. Now White threatens R-R7.

                      12  ...            Kt(B2)-R3
                      13  RxKt           PxR
                      14  BxP _ch_

By sacrificing the exchange White has brought his QB into active play;
now his superiority in material becomes overwhelming.

                      14  ...            K-K2
                      15  Q-R7 _ch_      K-K1
                      16  QxKt _ch_      K-Q2
                      17  Q-R7 _ch_      Q-K2
                      18  B-B8           QxQ
                      19  RxQ _ch_       K-K1
                      20  RxR            Resigns

Still more difficult is the attack when conducted, not as here, in one
particular quarter, but over the whole board. But the example shown in
Diag. 47 is sufficiently complicated. It shows an attack on the King's
field combined with pressure in the centre. As in the other examples the
essentials are: the opening of lines and the creation of strong points.
Note, for instance, how White opens here two lines for his KR and QB:
the KB file and the diagonal QB1 to KR6. Then observe how he creates
strong squares at Q6 and QB4, to which is added shortly after KB5, all
of which are occupied successively by the Knights. White's task was made


                               DIAGRAM 47

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    | #R | #Kt| #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #Q | #B | #B | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #P |    | #Kt|    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | #P |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^B |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^Kt|    | ^P | ^B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Botvinnik; _Black:_ Tartakower
                           Nottingham, 1936


easier by the fact that Black had weakened his K side by ... P-KKt4; but
this advance was made in answer to White's threat of P-KB4, which is
precisely the manner in which a weakness should be exploited in the
course of an attack.

                       1  P-B4           KtPxP
                       2  KtPxP          K-Kt2
                       3  PxKP           QPxP
                       4  P-B5           PxP
                       5  KtxP           Q-B3
                       6  Kt-QB4         Kt-Kt3
                       7  Kt-Q6

This Kt cannot be captured because of 8 KtxKt, winning a piece. The
whole of White's manoeuvre was carried out with the utmost precision and
dispatch.

                       7  ...            B-K3
                       8  KtxB

White disdains to win the exchange; he is playing for a mate.

                       8  ...            KtxKt
                       9  RxKt

And now it is White who gives up the exchange. Black's King is deprived
of all defending forces and the white pieces, Q, R, B and Kt, force the
win.

                       9  ...            KxR
                      10  Q-R5

An important move which not only threatens QxRP _ch_, and B-Kt5 _mate_,
but clears the way for the remaining Rook. Black is unable to guard the
KRP because of R-B1 _ch_, and the BP falls.

                      10  ...            Kt-Kt3
                      11  Kt-B5          R-KKt1

The, Kt could not be taken because 11 ... BxKt; 12 PxB, attacks the
Queen.

                      12  QxP            BxP
                      13  R-Q1

Suddenly, and rather unexpectedly, the open Q file decides the game. But
at this stage White could win in one of several ways.

                      13  ...            QR-Q1
                      14  Q-Kt5 _ch_     K-K3
                      15  RxR            P-B3
                      16  RxR            Kt-B5
                      17  Q-Kt7          Resigns.

Finally we shall give an even more complicated example (Diag. 48). The
striking feature in this position is that, at the moment, there is no
sign of an attack. It must be created in every particular. When it is
launched the adversary is not reduced to a passive defence; on the
contrary he initiates counter-attacks on the other wing. In this way
Black must conduct his


                               DIAGRAM 48

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    | #R |    | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P |    |    | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #Kt| #P | #B | #Kt|    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #B | ^Kt| #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^Q |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Alekhine; _Black:_ Levitzki
                              Vilna, 1912


attack, and at the same time ward off his opponent's assaults in another
sector.

Let us see, first of all, how Black assumes the initiative by paralysing
the enemy forces.

                       1  ...            KtxKt

Clearing the way for his KBP.

                       2  BxKt           Kt-Q5

Attacking White's KP.

                       3  Q-Q1           B-KKt5

Again attacking the same pawn.

                       4  R-K1

The white KBP has now become weak; a target for Black's concentrated
attack.

                       4  ...            P-QB3

To enable the KBP to advance.

                       5  B-Kt2          P-B4

Threatening ... P-B5; opening the KB file, with an attack by the Rook on
White's KBP.

                       6  P-R3           B-R4
                       7  P-QKt4         B-R2
                       8  Kt-Kt3         P-B5
                       9  P-Kt4

Closing the diagonal for the Bishop, without opening the file for the
Rook. But it creates a fresh weakness and allows the adverse Queen to
participate in the attack.

                       9  ...            Q-R5
                      10  P-B5

Closing the diagonal of another Bishop. The battle rages round open
lines.

                      10  ...            KtxKt
                      11  QxKt _ch_      B-B2

The Bishop has retired without losing a _tempo_ and now threatens to
take part in the attack on another diagonal.

                      12  Q-B3

The QBP must be protected.

                      12  ...            P-KR4

A new wave in the attack. If White captures the pawn the Bishop will
again come into its own and ... P-B6; will be threatened. On the other
hand, the KKtP cannot be guarded. Therefore White takes measures for
bringing the Queen to the K side for defensive purposes.

                      13  P-Q4           RPxP

Black, of course, refrains from capturing the QP, as then White would
have an excellent diagonal QR1-KKt7 and would threaten the KBP.

                      14  RPxP           B-Q4

Better than ... QxP; after which White could still hold the position by
QPxP, P-B3, etc. As it is the only piece which protects White's King is
eliminated.

                      15  QPxP           BxB
                      16  KxB            QxKtP _ch_
                      17  K-B1           PxBP

Threatening to advance this pawn, thus opening a diagonal for the
Bishop.

                      18  PxP            BxP
                      19  QxB            Q-R6 _ch_
                      20  K-Kt1          R-B4
                      21  Q-B4 _ch_      K-R1

White is lost. He is threatened with mate or the doubling of the black
Rooks. If 22 BxP, Q-Kt5 _ch_; winning the Bishop.

                      22  QxKBP          RxQ
                      23  BxR            R-KB1 and wins.


_(b) Manoeuvring_


In manifestly superior positions an attack at times is
impossible, because the advantage is not sufficiently great, or because
a possible objective is not important enough or, again, because the
necessary forces are not available. Frequently, also, the
characteristics of a position are not favourable for an attack; closed
positions are seldom subjected to a lively attack. For that reason we
often find the initial stage of the middle game taken up by preparatory
manoeuvres. This happens, for instance, immediately after the opening,
when positions are equal, before the balance between the two parties has
been disturbed.

As at present we are dealing with positions in which one side has a
certain advantage, the particular question to be answered is: how can we
exploit and increase our advantage when for one reason or another an
attack is not possible?

It requires a far more subtle and difficult method than a mere attack,
and that for several reasons. First of all, in an attack, the target is
much more obvious, and, in consequence, it is much easier to decide
where to place our forces, and which particular units are indispensable.
Furthermore, the means of conducting an attack are well known: opening
lines, breaking up a pawn-chain, throwing our pawns forward for the
assault, and concentrating our forces on an obvious weakness. Finally,
threats are much more direct and the defensive possibilities more easily
seen.

The first difficulty arising from this type of manoeuvres is that the
opponent has such a great number of possible replies that it is
impossible to foresee even his next move. In order not to lose our way
in a multitude of variations, we must, as far as possible, have the
clearest conception of what we want to achieve. A general notion would
not suffice. As a starting point, we must first find out in what our
superiority consists, and then where our opponent's real weakness is to
be found. It is far better to have a restricted but well-defined
objective, e.g., creation and occupation of a strong point, the
besieging of a weak square in the adversary's camp, the opening of a
file, etc., etc., than to wallow in a maze of generalities, without any
fixed purpose. The real difficulty will be found in even and
well-balanced positions; where an advantage exists, it is only a
question of careful, persevering play, in order to see the objective in
a clear light, as well as the means of reaching it.

We shall first examine a very simple illustration (Diag. 49). Here Black
has a backward pawn on an


                               DIAGRAM 49

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #Q | #P | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^Q |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^B |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^K | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Botvinnik; _Black:_ Capablanca
                             Moscow, 1936


open file; this is his weakness, and here White's advantage is to be
found. He will concentrate all his forces against this pawn, and, in the
first place, prevent its advance. This is of great importance, for this
advance, although it would not prevent future attacks, would at once
give the black pieces their freedom of action: As it is, all the black
pieces will remain confined to two ranks for the protection of this
important pawn. However, as the pawn can be defended as many times as it
can be attacked, how can White increase his advantage? The fact that the
said advantage is one of space provides the answer. White must not look
for threats; rather must he seek to restrict his opponent more and more
and, in the end, force his pieces more or less into a position of
stalemate.

                       1  P-K4           QR-Q1
                       2  QR-Q1          Q-Kt2
                       3  P-B3           Kt-K1
                       4  R-Q2           P-B4
                       5  KR-Q1          B-Kt4

The pawn cannot be taken: 5 ... PxP; 6 QxKP, QxQ; 7 KtxQ, P-Q3; 8 B-R3.

                       6  R-Q3           B-B3
                       7  P-K5           B-K2
                       8  Q-B2

In order to place the Queen behind a Rook.

                       8  ...            R-B2
                       9  Q-Q2           B-Kt5
                      10  P-QR3          B-B1

By 10 ... BxKt; Black would lose his only active piece. Sooner or later
the white Bishop would attack the QR, and the QP would fall.

                      11  Kt-K2          Kt-B2
                      12  Kt-B4          P-Kt3
                      13  P-KR4          P-QKt4

Black is choking; he now tries a diversion, which costs him a pawn but
affords a little breathing space. The logical continuation would have
been 13 ... B-R3; but White could win a pawn by the following
combination: 14 KtxKP, BxQ; (14 ... KtxKt; 15 QxB,) 15 KtxR, Q any; 16
KtxR, KxKt; 17 RxB, and the QP can no longer be defended.

                      14  PxP            QxP

If 14 ... KtxP; 15 KtxKP.

                      15  R-QB1          Q-Kt2

The Knight cannot move away because KtxP, would again be threatened. The
reason is now clear why this Knight moved to KB4: with a R at Black's Q1
the QP is pinned and the KP has also become weak and insufficiently
protected.

                      16  RxKt

This wins a pawn and thereby the game. White's strategy is thus
justified. But it might possibly have been better for White to keep up
the pressure, instead of being content with a small gain in material. By
playing 16 Q-R5, and after 16 ... R-B1; 17 R(Q3)-B3, White would have
forced his opponent to resign.

                      16  ...            QxR
                      17  KtxKP          PxKt
                      18  RxR, etc.

The last example showed how to take advantage of an open file. The next
example, also a simple one, illustrates the exploitation of strong
squares (Diag. 50).

Having weakened the black squares on Black's K side by the advance of
his KRP, White has created some very strong points at K5 and QB5. He is
now bent on occupying them. A K side attack seems called for, and many
players in this position would have unhesitatingly embarked upon it. But
in that case Black would obtain counter-chances on the Q side, after
occupying a


                               DIAGRAM 50

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #B | #Kt| #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #Q | #Kt| #B | #P | ^B | #P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | #P |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^B | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q | ^K |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Alekhine; _Black:_ Rubinstein
                            The Hague, 1921


strong square at his KB4 and making full use of the open QB file.

                       1  Kt-B1          R-B2
                       2  Kt-Kt3         Kt-R4
                       3  Kt-B5          Kt-B5

The Knight could not be taken because of 3 ... BxKt; 4 PxB, QxP; 5 B-Q4,
Q-B3; 6 Kt-K5, Q any; 7 Kt-Kt4, threatening Kt-B6 _ch_, and the attack
against the King comes into being. How many attacks there are on various
parts of the board! This is great Chess!

                       4  KBxKt          PxB
                       5  Kt-K5

Now White attacks the Bishop twice and the pawn at B5 at the same time.
If ... BxKt(B4); a piece is lost after PxB.

                       5  ...            BxKt(K4)
                       6  BxKt           B-Q3

If 6 ... R-K1; White continues 7 PxB, RxB; 8 Kt-K4, with the double
threat of Kt-B6 _ch_, and Q-Q6.

                       7  BxR            BxB
                       8  KtxB           RxKt

And White wins, being the exchange ahead.

The following example (Diag. 51) is more complex and, at the same time,
very beautiful; it is positional play of the highest class. It could
serve as an object lesson in the intermediary phase between the opening
and the middle game as well as in the treatment of an advantage in
space. It is quite clear that such an advantage exists here, and it will
occasion no surprise to see the attacker


                               DIAGRAM 51

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #Kt| #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #Kt| #P |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^B |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^Q |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Botvinnik; _Black:_ Flohr
                              Moscow, 1936


proceed slowly and without direct threats. It will require a good deal
of time to increase this small advantage and to bring the game to a
successful issue.

                       1  R-B3

A simple warning that Black may, after all, have to face an attack,
which warning Black cannot disregard. But White's real intention is to
double his Rooks and to operate in the centre.

                       1  ...            Q-K1
                       2  R-Q1           R-Q1
                       3  P-QKt3

White liberates his Queen; there are now, in fact, possibilities of
attack.

                       3  ...            P-KB4
                       4  Kt-Q3

He now avoids an exchange of Knights which would close the K file for
him. Only when the Q file is in his entire control will he submit to
this exchange.

                       4  ...            B-B3
                       5  B-B2           Q-B2
                       6  Kt-K1          KR-K1
                       7  KR-Q3

The manoeuvre, which was begun at move 1, is now accomplished. The Rooks
are doubled on the Q file.

                       7  ...            Kt-KB1
                       8  Kt-B3          Q-B2
                       9  Kt-K5

The Knight's manoeuvre is picturesque; it has taken four moves and
completed a full circle, only to return to the square from which it
started! But now Black cannot very well exchange it, as White would then
obtain permanent mastery of the Q file.

                       9  ...            Kt(Kt3)-Q2
                      10  Q-Q2           B-K2

Now Black again threatens to exchange Knights,

                      11  Kt-B3          Kt-B3

and at the same time he has opened the way to his K5 for his own
Knight.

                      12  Q-B1           Kt-K5
                      13  Kt-K5          KtxB
                      14  KxKt           Kt-Q2
                      15  Q-K3           KtxKt

Now that White can no longer monopolize the Q file Black exchanges the
terrible white Knight.

                      16  BPxKt          Q-R4
                      17  P-QR4          R-Q2
                      18  P-Kt3          Q-Q1
                      19  K-Kt2          B-Kt4
                      20  Q-B3           Q-K2
                      21  P-B5

White's plan seemed to be to advance the QP, and Black was chiefly
concerned in preparing for that eventuality. But now White embarks upon
another scheme, which would not have been feasible had Black still
possessed a Knight (a black Knight posted at its Q4 would have been too
powerful a weapon). With the text-move White threatens P-QKt4-5. Black
will parry, this advance but another threat will arise--the posting of
the white Knight at Q6.

                      21  ...            P-QR4
                      22  Kt-Kt1         Q-B1
                      23  Kt-R3          B-Q1
                      24  Kt-B4          B-B2
                      25  Kt-Q6

Another wondrous journey by the Knight, from QB3 to Q6 in four moves!

                      25  ...            R-Kt1
                      26  R-QKt1

Threatening P-QKt4. Black always manages to find defensive moves which
enable him just to hold the position. But moves are getting scarce for
him.

                      26  ...            Q-Q1
                      27  P-QKt4         PxP
                      28  RxP            BxKt

The only way to preserve the QKtP.

                      29  KPxB

Note that all pawn captures are made towards the Queen's wing, whilst
the K side is neglected. This shows a true insight into the position.

                      29  ...            Q-R4
                      30  R(Q3)-Kt3      R-K1
                      31  Q-K2           Q-R1

White's threat is Q-B4, R-Kt6, Q-Kt4 winning a pawn.

                      32  R-K3           K-B2
                      33  Q-B4

Now that White has more or less a won game he makes a slight error,
which affords his opponent an unexpected tactical opportunity. A
striking demonstration of the necessity for constant and unremitting
attention!

                      33  ...            P-QKt4

This pawn cannot be captured because of 34 ... PxP _dis. ch._; winning
the Queen. Thus Black gets rid of his weak and backward QKtP.

                      34  Q-B2           RxP

Black thinks that, thanks to his opponent's slight error, he can relieve
the pressure by combinative play. A little better would be 34 ... R-R2;
although in that case White has a combination, as follows: 35 P-Q5, and
if ... BPxP; 36 RxKtP, or if 35...KPxP; 36 QxP _ch._

                      35  PxR            P-B4 _dis. ch_

It is clear that on his 33rd move White should first have moved his King
away from the diagonal and from the distant threat by Black's Queen.

                      36  K-R3           PxR
                      37  Q-B7 _ch_      K-Kt1
                      38  P-Q7 and wins.

The connoisseur will realise how much more there is in play of this type
than in a simple, if brilliant, combination. The student who has studied
this game with sufficient care will grasp not only the sense of each
individual move, but that of the various series of manoeuvres. He will
find himself the better armed for his own struggles.


_(c) Bringing about an End Game_


We have already examined some examples of the transition from the middle
game into the end game. It must always be borne in mind that this
transition frequently provides a method of accentuating some advantages
which are of little value in the middle game. Again, in the middle game,
we might, even with a numerical advantage, be faced with a loss owing to
positional considerations; if we can then bring about an end game, we
can make the most of our extra material, provided always that we are
sufficiently familiar with end game conditions, to know whether this
change in any particular case is desirable or not.

In the position shown in Diag. 52 White has a substantial advantage in
all three elements, while Black occupies the open KB file with his heavy
artillery and threatens the KBP. Its protection would keep the whole of
the White forces tied up. White's real advantage consists in an extra
pawn, the QP, which is backward and cannot be exploited in the middle
game. If White


                               DIAGRAM 52

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    | #R |    | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #B |    |    |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    | #Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P |    | #P | #R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^Q |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^B | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    | ^R | ^P | ^K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Tchigorin; _Black:_ Blackburne
                             Hastings, 1895


could only lead into an end game he could easily make the most of this
pawn and with Bishops of the same colour, and Black's Q side pawns of
the same colour as the Bishop, victory would presumably be his. It is
not surprising, therefore, to see White making a series of exchanges in
order to bring about the end game. His method is one of direct threats,
but one could imagine another procedure: that of gradually warding off
the enemy attack, making all possible exchanges in the process.

                       1  P-B4           Q-B3 _ch_
                       2  Q-B3           QxQ _ch_
                       3  KxQ            R-Q1

If 3 ... PxP; the white Bishop's long diagonal and the K file are opened
simultaneously, which gives White the opportunity of a decisive attack:
4 R-K7 (threatening RxB, and BxP _ch_), PxP _dis. ch_; 5 K-Kt2, R-B7
_ch_; 6 K-Kt1, B-Q1; 7 BxP _ch_, winning the exchange.

                       4  BxP

More decisive perhaps would be 4 K-K4.

                       4  ...            BxB
                       5  RxB            RxQP _ch_
                       6  R(K1)-K3       RxR _ch_
                       7  KxR            R-B1
                       8  R-K6           R-QKt1
                       9  K-K4

and the win for White is easy as, in addition to his extra pawn, his
position is far superior, with the King in the centre and an active
against a passive Rook.

In this example White, after the exchanges, has managed to maintain his
advantage of one pawn; it is still more useful when the original
advantage increases during the transition between middle and end game.
Much more difficult, and not infrequent, are the cases in which the
advantage held before the transformation changes in character or in
value during this phase of the game. It is then a matter of careful
judgment as to whether it is not better to cling to the existing
advantage and to continue middle game play.

In Diag. 53 White has a marked advantage in time, having developed both
his Knights whilst Black's KKt has not moved yet, and his QKt is on an
unfavourable square at QR3. In addition ... Castles KR; would take time,
whilst ... Castles QR; would cost a pawn. Black cannot drive off the
advanced Knight by ... P-QB3; because of Kt-Q6 _ch_. In the meantime
White will play KR-K1, and if Black replies ... Kt-K2; the white King
leaves the K file and the black Kt is pinned. If Black plays ... Kt-B3;
instead of ... Kt-K2; again the white King leaves the K file, this time
with check, and in moving out of check the black King will interrupt the
connection between his


                               DIAGRAM 53

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    | #K |    | #Kt| #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Kt|    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    | ^K | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Tarrasch; _Black:_ Mieses
                            Goteborg, 1920


Rooks. White's advantage thus appears to be overwhelming. But in one of
the variations mentioned there is a _finesse_. If, after 1 ... Castles;
White plays 2 KtxP _ch_, the sequel is 2 ... K-Kt1; 3 Kt(R7)-Kt5, P-QB3;
and the Knight must move away from QKt5 leaving his companion _en prise_
by the Rook.

White must find a parry against this threat, otherwise Black can
complete his development, and then White's advantage in time will have
completely disappeared. As we know, an advantage in time cannot be
maintained except by constant threats. Now is the crucial moment: White
has reached the peak of his advantage, and, unless he finds "something,"
he will begin going downhill. This is also the time to exchange the
advantage in time for one in another element, or, alternatively, to try
to reach the end game stage. The game continued as follows: 1 KR-K1,
Castles; 2 KtxP _ch_, K-Kt1; 3 Kt(R7)-B6 _ch_, PxKt; 4 KtxP _ch_, K-B1;
5 KtxR, KxKt; and we have reached an ending in which White has a Rook
and two united passed pawns against two Knights; is it enough to win?
Probably it is (in the actual game White won). But the original
advantage was very small, and ordinarily, after these exchanges, a win
for White could not be guaranteed.

Diag. 54 illustrates another case of the same kind. Black has an extra
pawn whilst his opponent has a fairly strong attack; he naturally
desires to bring about an end game as quickly as possible, in which his
advantage will be of greater effective value. But he cannot achieve


                               DIAGRAM 54

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B | #P |    | #Q |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #Kt|    | #P |    | ^Q |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^B |    |    | ^Kt| ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Euwe; _Black:_ Alekhine
                              Match, 1935


this end without losing his extra pawn. Where, then, will be his
advantage? He therefore formulates a plan in which the sacrifice of his
pawn will lead to an end game which, positionally, is won for him. This
kind of play obviously requires a profound knowledge of the end game and
the faculty to visualize the desired position many moves ahead.

                       1  ...            Q-B2
                       2  Q-Kt5          QR-Q1
                       3  P-KR4          RxR
                       4  RxR            Kt-Q5

This is the pawn-sacrifice which enforces the exchange of all the
pieces.

                       5  BxKt           PxB
                       6  RxP            BxKt
                       7  R-KB4          Q-R4
                       8  RxR _ch_       KxR
                       9  Q-B4 _ch_      Q-B2
                      10  QxB            QxQ
                      11  PxQ            P-K4
                      12  K-B1           P-QKt4
                      13  K-K2

and now Black obtains a winning advantage by 13 ... P-R4. In the actual
game Black, feeling sure of a win, carelessly played ... P-B4; and could
only draw. It is a pity that such a deep plan should have been ruined by
a simple oversight.


                       III. INFERIOR POSITIONS


                 I. INFERIORITY IN DIFFERENT ELEMENTS


The sagacious reader will wonder at the title of this division of the
book, and, quite rightly, say that inferior positions can only be of the
same types as those already examined, but seen from the opposite point
of view. This is true and will enable us to restrict the number of
examples, and much that has been said can serve us here. There is,
nevertheless, a distinction: in many of the positions shown, the
advantage led to victory because it was sufficiently big, or because the
attack was conducted in superlative fashion, or finally, because the
defender was not quite equal to his task. We shall now examine positions
in which a disadvantage does not entail the loss of the game, because it
is not important enough, or because the attacker failed to make the most
of his chances or, finally, because the defender managed to discover
unexpected resources.

One might suppose that all that has been said about superior positions
would also apply to inferior ones, and the defender only needs to do the
opposite of what the attacker was advised to do. There are, however,
many points and problems which the defender has to think out and which
are typical only of the defence; we shall elucidate them in the course
of our explanations in connection with the positions illustrated and
especially when we come to speak of "ideas in chess." We shall first
examine the characteristics connected with the weaknesses in each
element.

First of all there is inferiority in material, the simplest case, about
which there is little to say.

Disadvantage in force does not necessarily mean the loss of a game; if
it were so, no gambit, no combination would be playable. But even if our
opponent has actually won a piece or pawn otherwise than by an oversight
on our part, he must have made some effort and spent some time in doing
so. There is, therefore, nearly always some compensation.
Psychologically, too, there is here a point to be considered: the player
who, after sustained effort, has won some material, is naturally
inclined to relax; having realised his intentions, he is not in the best
condition for the immediate conception of another plan requiring further
efforts. This is the moment when we should try to assume the initiative
and create as many difficulties for him as possible. Passive acceptance
of the situation almost certainly leads to disaster.

In Diag. 55 White has an advantage in material of Rook against Bishop
and pawn. In addition White threatens to initiate a K side attack. What
can Black do to counteract these unfavourable circumstances? Any


                               DIAGRAM 55

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #Q |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #B | #P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    | ^Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^R |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K |    | ^R |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Mieses; _Black:_ Capablanca
                              Berlin, 1913


plan likely to be suitable would try to utilise the extra pawn. But in
an end game a Rook is more powerful than a Bishop and pawn, and so Black
must avoid drifting into an ending and make the most of his extra pawn
in the middle game, whilst warding off White's attack. Attack and
defence are blended in his first move, which initiates Black's scheme.

                       1  ...            B-K2
                       2  QR-K2          B-B3
                       3  Q-R5

A weak move. The Queen is now out of play. He should have continued his
attack with P-KKt4, Q-Kt3, P-KR4, P-Kt5, etc.

                       3  ...            P-KR3
                       4  P-KKt4         K-R2

Because of the threat of P-KR4, which now would be met by ... P-KKt3;
winning the Queen. Thus Black has entirely safeguarded his position
against any attack on the K side. He can now concentrate all his forces
on the other wing and, with the white Queen out of play, his attacking
chances are by no means negligible. Incidentally, for Black to remain
passive would be most injudicious: once his Queen gets back into play,
White could resume his attack and play for the end game. Four moves ago
Black thought perhaps only of obtaining a passed pawn supported by the
Bishop; but now, thanks to his opponent's lapse, he can, in fact he
must, play for an energetic attack.

                       5  K-Kt1          R-Q1
                       6  R-Q1           P-B4
                       7  Q-R3           Q-R5

Black takes advantage of the fact that White has given up his attack
against the KBP, in order to bring his Queen into the game and to free
his pawns for their advance. And so Black's Queen attacks the QR and
KKtP, by which means the white Queen is still kept out of play:

                       8  R(K2)-Q2       Q-K5 _ch_
                       9  K-R1           P-QKt4

The critical moment. Black could here obtain a passed pawn by 10 ...
P-Q5, which, at an earlier stage, would have satisfied his ambitions.
But now he plays for more. As this move would have blocked his B, and
the pawn would have easily been stopped by a hostile Rook, he makes use
of all his resources and threatens ... P-Kt5; which also would give him
a passed pawn, without, however, blocking the Bishop.

                      10  Q-Kt2          Q-R5
                      11  K-Kt1          P-Kt5

We need go no further; it is clear that Black has now an active game and
that his attack makes up for his material disadvantage; he has a
considerable positional advantage, sufficient to win, which indeed he
did after a short time.

Let us now examine the case of a disadvantage in space. Here it is of
great importance to realise exactly in what our weakness consists, and
what is our opponent's principal threat. Only then does it become
possible to remedy the weakness and to parry the threat.

In the position shown in Diag. 56, which position also illustrates the
transition from the opening into the middle game, Black has an advantage
in space. Analysis will show us that White's weakness is his QB which
has hardly any scope. White would endanger his own position by P-K4, as
Black's answer ... Kt-K4; in connection with ... Kt-B5; aiming at both
the B and


                               DIAGRAM 56

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    | #R |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Kt| #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #Q |    |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Kt| ^Kt|    | ^P | ^Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^B |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Tarrasch; _Black:_ Duras
                             Hamburg, 1910


the QKtP, is perhaps his most serious threat.

                       1  Kt-K2

Threatening to develop the Bishop at QB3 and thereby to eliminate both
his weaknesses at the same time, as the QKtP would then be protected.

                       1  ...            P-Kt5

To prevent the manoeuvre described above and also the minor threat of
B-R5. But the pawn itself is weakened by this advance as well as the
square QB5 where a Knight might have been established.

                       2  Kt(K2)-Q4      Kt-K4
                       3  Q-K2

Preventing ... Kt-B5; and indirectly protecting the QKtP. Black must
bring up more pieces to accentuate the pressure.

                       3  ...            Kt-K5
                       4  B-K1

The Bishop is now still more restricted. But we now perceive White's
intentions. As he could not open a diagonal for his Bishop by playing
P-K4, he now finds an opportunity of opening another diagonal by the
advance of his KBP.

                       4  ...            R-B1
                       5  QR-B1          Kt-Q3
                       6  Kt-Q2

A severe struggle is taking place for the control of Black's QB5.

                       6  ...            B-B3

Occupying the long diagonal with an attack on the QKtP.

                       7  P-B3

At last this move has become possible. Now the strength of White's game
lies in the position of the Knight at Q4, from where it cannot be
dislodged.

                       7  ...            Kt-B3
                       8  KtxKt          RxKt
                       9  RxR            QxR
                      10  Kt-Kt3

With a number of objects: defence of the QKtP, attack on the hostile
QKtP, return of a Knight to Q4.

                      10  ...            Q-Kt3
                      11  B-B2

White's main object is achieved. His Bishop is developed and the
positions have become equal. The game now proceeds towards a level
ending.

                      11  ...            Q-Kt4
                      12  QxQ            KtxQ
                      13  R-Q2, etc.

It would be difficult to find a better illustration of the method of
equalising a position against an advantage in space, an example the more
instructive as such positions frequently occur after an indifferently
played opening, with either Black or White at a disadvantage. In similar
cases every effort must be made to re-establish equality, without any
thoughts of assuming the initiative; once that is achieved, and only
then, can further plans be considered. The present game resulted in a
draw. Dr. Tarrasch's final note to the game gives food for thought:
"White thought his task well done, when he achieved equality in
difficult circumstances and after a poor opening."

In this example, the difficulties of a disadvantage in space were
overcome by a passive defence: this can, in rare cases, be effected by a
counter-attack.

We shall now examine a position in which there is a disadvantage in
time.

In Diag. 57 White has an advantage in space and in time, the latter
being here of greater importance, as Black's Queen and K Rook are absent
from the Q side, where an attack is in course of preparation. Black's
first task, therefore, is to bring back these pieces with the utmost
speed and, whilst holding off his opponent's



                               DIAGRAM 57

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    | #K |    | #R |    |    | #R |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B | #P | #Kt|    | #P | #Q | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    |    | #P | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^P |    | ^Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R | ^Q |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^P |    | ^B |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K | ^R |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

             _White:_ Capablanca; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                          St. Petersburg, 1913


fast-developing attack, to prepare a counter-attack which, in the nature
of things, must be launched in the centre.

                       1  B-B3

Eliminating Black's vigorous Bishop, his best defensive unit, which
incidentally creates weaknesses at Black's QR3 and QB3. Black, unable to
prevent this, loses no time in recalling his troops.

                       1  ...            KR-K1
                       2  BxB            KxB
                       3  P-QB5          P-B3

Preventing P-B6 _ch_.

                       4  Kt-B3          Q-B1

Now Black's pieces are better placed; he has more space and has nearly
caught up his adversary in point of time. But he still has weaknesses at
Q3 and on the QB and QR files. White's attack will develop here.

                       5  Kt-Q2          PxP

It is necessary to prevent White's Kt from reaching his Q6.

                       6  Kt-B4          Kt-Kt3

With the same object. We see how Black guards his weakest point.

                       7  Kt-R5 _ch_     K-R1
                       8  PxP

If 8 KtxP, then ... Kt-Q4; and ... P-B5. As we are dealing with the
defence, we refrain from analysing all the attacking possibilities.

                       8  ...            Kt-Q4
                       9  Q-Q4           R-B1

Black has succeeded in guarding all his weak points and has reached
equality in time. White is still ahead in space, but Black's Knight is
very well posted in the centre. This is the critical moment, when an
advantage in one element is converted into an advantage in another, or
when the defender must consider the possibility of a counter-attack.

                      10  P-B4

Black's Knight at his Q4 is the very basis of his defence; should it be
dislodged, it would mean the total collapse of his strategy. This is the
moment to start a counter-attack. Should it fail, the game is lost; but
it would certainly also be lost were the Knight meekly to retire (Diag.
58).


                               DIAGRAM 58

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #K |    | #R |    | #R | #Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #P | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^Kt|    | ^P | #Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^Q |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    |    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^K | ^R |    |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


                      10  ...            P-K4
                      11  Q-Kt1          P-K5

If the Rook moves away, Black plays ... P-K6; threatening ... P-K7; or
better still ... QxP. Therefore White decides to convert his advantage.
He sacrifices the exchange in order to obtain a passed pawn; whether for
attacking or defensive purposes is not quite clear.

                      12  PxKt           PxR
                      13  P-Q6           R-K7

We can leave it at that: Black has succeeded not only in eliminating his
inferiority in time, but he has also found an adequate defence against
White's attack. Moreover, he has won the exchange and, to set off
against White's dangerous threat of P-Q7, he has himself a few threats
which cannot be disregarded.

We shall now leave the subject of the elements and pass on to the study
of "ideas" in chess relating in the first place to inferior positions.


         2. VARIOUS MEANS OF REMEDYING INFERIORITY IN POSITION


Once we have realised that our position is inferior, it is policy to
ascertain whether our opponent's advantage is such that he can hope for
an early win without having to resort to extreme measures. On the
contrary, it may be his advantage is so minute that he must reckon with
the probability of a long and arduous struggle in the course of which he
must increase his advantage before he can think of forcing a win, or
even that it will be necessary for him to rely on the end game.

Our strategy will depend on the nature of the answers to these
questions. Although the player who has an advantage must himself know
first of all what he wants, his opponent is reduced to guessing the
attacker's intentions and plans. Yet it should be the motto of the
defender not to submit to the will of the attacker but to escape his
grip. Hence the necessity of being for ever on the look-out for chances
of counter-attack. This is an even more pressing need when we are in
real danger; there may lie our only salvation. If, on the contrary, our
position shows no real weakness, we may rely on passive defence, in
which, however, it should be our endeavour to keep engaged as many of
the enemy pieces as possible, by which means we may obtain favourable
opportunities. Every attack entails a certain amount of risk. It
produces weaknesses at one point or another, especially in the case of
pawns, or where there is a congestion of pieces on one particular part
of the board; we must then bide our time. When the attack is beaten off,
and the enemy's position is weakened and his pieces are ill-placed for
the defence, then our chance will have come. It is in such cases that
the ordinary precepts of sound defence are particularly valuable; the
weaker party must not open lines, especially where his weakness lies, as
it would only benefit his adversary. It is essential to ascertain
whether the opponent is himself heedful of such precepts and whether he
is not creating his own weaknesses. For instance, a flank-attack is not
admissible unless the centre is blocked or at least strong. Any
negligence in that respect must immediately be seized upon by the
defender and exploited to the utmost.

A player, in an inferior position, would feel inclined at all times to
follow a line of play entirely opposed to that which his opponent wishes
to pursue. As his opponent is the stronger, it is not always possible
and in any case would frequently help his intentions. A more subtle plan
which, not infrequently, leads to success is to appear to acquiesce in
the opponent's dictation. If he plays for an end game, allow him to
obtain it, but try to find some nuance which will nullify his advantage.
A purely psychological point arises here. By letting your opponent have
his own way, you will probably make him think that your resistance has
broken down and that you cannot hold him any more; after his own
efforts, he is the more likely to relax or, alternatively, to embark on
risky adventures.

In an inferior position it is, in normal circumstances, futile to think
of playing for a win before (and until) equality has been reached. But,
in practice, it often happens that a player in an inferior position
passes directly into one of decisive advantage, without going through an
intermediate stage. This could result from a well-timed counter-attack,
and also from opportunities which are apt to arise when the opponent is
obstinately aggressive. A stubborn defence is likely to lure him on to
undue commitments; even if he notices that his advantage is gradually
disappearing it is too late to withdraw, and he drifts on until his game
is lost.

Amongst the several means of counteracting an advantage in the hostile
position the most usual are: passive resistance, counter-attack, and
transition into the end game. Some special cases call for a number of
exchanges and for cross-combinations. We shall examine them with the
help of appropriate illustrations.


_(a) Passive Defence_


It is impossible to promulgate a hard and fast rule as to when a passive
defence is to be preferred to a counterattack; all that can be said is
that passive resistance is called for when a counter-attack is either
impossible or its preparation would require time. The two can of course
be combined, nor is it rare for a passive defence to turn imperceptibly
into a counter-attack. But the fact that you are reduced to a passive
defence is no cause for despair; it works satisfactorily in an
astonishingly large number of cases; the resources of the game are truly
unending.

White, in the position shown in Diag. 59, has a splendid attacking game,
marred only by the fact that


                               DIAGRAM 59

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #Q |    | #P | #P | #Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #P |    | #R |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Q |    |    |    | ^P | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^R |    | ^K |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Alekhine; _Black:_ Euwe
                         Match, Amsterdam, 1937


His KP is precariously posted at K5. But his K side pawns threaten to
advance en masse and, by opening files for his Rooks, to overcome the
enemy's resistance. Black, for his part, has no opportunities at the
moment for a counter-attack, as ... P-QB4; will not be playable for a
long time to come, and would, at best, lead to the isolation of his QP.
Nevertheless, there is no weakness in his position, and this enables him
to wait and, by a stubborn defence, lure into the attack the whole of
White's forces, including his pawns. Once the attack is beaten off, the
end game might prove unfavourable for White on account of the weakness
of these pawns.

                       1  Kt-B5          P-B3
                       2  P-Kt4          PxP
                       3  BxKP           Kt-B3

It is clear that Black hopes to establish his Kt at his K5, from where
it will exercise a strong pressure on White's game, with a constant
threat of ... Kt-B7 _ch_.

                       4  Q-Q3           K-R1

The last two moves foreshadowed the sacrifice by White of his Kt for the
KRP followed by Q-Kt6 _ch_, which Black immediately anticipates, by
eliminating the check.

                       5  R-KKt1

Another, and more hazardous attack could be initiated here by 5 P-Kt5,
with the sacrifice of a pawn.

                       5  ...            B-B2

With this move Black gives up any present intention of advancing his
QBP; he wishes to ease the pressure by the exchange of his passive
Bishop for the extremely aggressive white Bishop.

                       6  P-B4

Again White could have tried a sudden onslaught by 6 P-Kt5. The text
move has the drawback that Black can, though not on the next move, play
his Knight to his K5.

                       6  ...            Q-B2

With a view to ... BxB; and ... Kt-K5.

                       7  QR-KB1

The sacrifice of the Knight at KKt7 leads to nothing after ... RxB; and
... Kt-K5.

                       7  ...            BxB
                       8  BPxB           Kt-K5

After this move White's attack falls to pieces, and the advantage passes
to his opponent. The will to maintain the attack at all hazards costs
White the game.

                       9  P-Kt5

The sacrifice 9 KtxRP, was unsound because of 9 ... Kt-B7 _ch_; 10
K-Kt2, RxKt; 11 RxKt, RxP _ch_; etc.

                       9  ...            PxP
                      10  Kt-Q6          Kt-B7 _ch_
                      11  K-Kt2          KtxQ
                      12  KtxQ _ch_      K-Kt1
                      13  KtxP           R-Kt3
                      14  P-KR4          P-B4

With this advance--the strategic turn which, from the first, was
pending--Black obtains the advantage. Strategic objects and plans are,
by their nature, permanent. If only the player keeps them in mind they
will, at the proper moment and more often than not unexpectedly, become
practicable, with decisive results.

We shall now leave this position, in which the defence has proved its
worth with persuasive strength.

Here is another example of the same type (Diag. 60). White threatens to
attack the QKtP, which cannot advance because it may then be attacked by
the RP.


                               DIAGRAM 60

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #K | #R |    |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P |    | #Kt|    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #P |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| ^P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | #Q | ^P | ^K | ^Q |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Khnlein; _Black:_ Tarrasch
                            Nuremberg, 1907


In addition he must safeguard his Queen which stands on the open QKt
file. White will in any case prevent the Queen from reaching her QR4,
pinning the Kt. Black's position looks precarious, in spite of his extra
pawn. He has, however, some future hope of obtaining a favourable end
game by ... P-KKt3; which would afford opportunities even in the middle
game.

                       1  P-QR4          Q-Kt5
                       2  P-R5           K-Kt1
                       3  KR-QKt1        Q-B4
                       4  Kt-R4          Q-R2

An unhappy position for a Queen, but Q3 must remain free for the Knight.

                       5  P-B4

Threatening to keep the Knight away from Black's Q3 by P-B5.

                       5  ...           P-B4
                       6  Kt-B3         Kt-B1
                       7  Kt-Q5         Kt-Q3

Black's object is achieved. He now threatens to drive away the white
Knight and to win one of the pawns at White's QB4 and K4. White
immediately anticipates this threat.

                       8  K-B3           P-B3

Black is in a difficult situation. After this move he hopes to liberate
his Queen, but his QKt3 becomes weak and affords White the opportunity
of an attack on his QRP and QBP.

                       9  Kt-Kt6         K-B2
                      10  R-Kt1

There was no necessity for transferring the attack to the other wing. He
should have played Kt-R4, threatening R-Kt6, QR-QKt1, KtxP, threatening
Kt-K6 _ch_, etc.

                      10  ...            QR-KKt1
                      11  Q-QKt2

March and counter-march! He has lost a _tempo_: as the Queen cannot
threaten QKt6, only the attack on the QBP remains.

                      11  ...            Q-Kt1
                      12  Kt-R4          P-KKt3

With this move Black obtains chances on the other wing. Observe how many
moves have been played before this advance has become feasible. What
patience and what steadiness! The main difficulty of such positions is
that these purely human qualities are required rather than the genius of
the chess-player.

                      13  KtxP           Q-R2
                      14  Q-R3           PxP
                      15  QR-Kt1

There was no objection to first recapturing the pawn.

                      15  ...            PxP
                      16  KtxKtP         KtxKt
                      17  Q-K7 _ch_      K-Kt1
                      18  QxBP           K-R1
                      19  RxR _ch_       RxR
                      20  QxBP

Threatening R-Kt6, and RxP. But Black has a defence, which will show
that White's attack was conducted without sufficient care, in that he
neglected his centre pawns.

                      20  ...            PxP
                      21  R-Kt6          P-Q7
                      22  KxP            R-Q1 _ch_
                      23  K-B3           R-Q3
                      24  Q-B7           RxR
                      25  PxR            Q-Kt1

Dr. Tarrasch rightly remarks that White, at this point, could still draw
the game with P-B5.

                      26  QxRP           Kt-B4

and Black won.

The next example (Diag. 61) will again emphasise the necessity, on the
part of the defender, of thoroughly


                               DIAGRAM 61

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Kt| #B | #B | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #R |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P | #P | #P |    | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^Q |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Znosko-Borovsky; _Black:_ Euwe
                           Broadstairs, 1921


understanding where his greatest weakness lies, for there the most
dangerous attack is to be expected. Lacking this knowledge, he can
hardly hope to defend himself successfully. He will find replies to
immediate threats, but inevitably succumb to a long prepared coup, in
the shape of an elaborate and lengthy attacking manoeuvre.

In this position White has a substantial advantage and a strong attack
against the hostile King. Black's pieces are unfavourably placed: his
Bishops have no open diagonals, his Knight has no good square available.
At the moment he has the choice of two moves: 1 ... P-B5, by which he
would obtain a majority of pawns on the Q side, and 1 ... PxP; winning a
pawn, though a doubled one, and opening a diagonal for one of his
Bishops. After this capture White's proper course is to refrain from
recapturing the pawn, which would expose his pieces to pins, and to
concentrate on the pawn at his Q5, combined with an advance of his KKtP,
not omitting, of course, to withdraw his King from a possible check on
the black diagonal.

                       1  ...            PxP
                       2  Q-Kt2          P-Q6
                       3  K-R1

An important moment for Black. He must provide against White's numerous
threats, the most important being the advance of the KKtP and the attack
on the pawn at Black's Q4. He could parry this attack by giving up the
exchange with ... R-B5; but this sacrifice would only facilitate the
advance of White's KKtP. In addition White threatens to play Kt-Q4, with
an attack on the QP: ... R-Q3; 4 B-KB4. If, in anticipation of this
threat, he plays ... Kt-B1; then 4 Kt-K5, wins. He must therefore cope
with this threat first of all, but, at the same time, he must foresee
and provide against White's future threats. If, in order to prevent
Kt-Q4, he plays the obvious ... B-B4; he relinquishes the control of his
KKt5 which could be occupied by White's Knight, with a double threat (B
and KR7) and prospects of future attacks. This could be countered by ...
Kt-B3; but the Kt might be attacked and captured. He must therefore call
upon another piece to protect the threatened squares.

It is now clear that the whole of Black's second rank requires
protection; the third rank is guarded by the Rook at QB3, the first rank
by the Queen; there remains the second Rook to look after the second
rank. But to make this protection effective it becomes necessary to
clear the second rank of the pieces which at present are encumbering it.
In this light all Black's moves are easily understood. In a previous
example (Diag. 46) Black effected the same defensive idea with a Rook at
QR2, but the idea underlying the attack ran on different lines, and so
the Rook at QR2 not only failed in its task but actually caused the loss
of the game, as it was deservedly captured. In the present instance,
matters are very different. Black has seen through White's intentions
and arranges his defence accordingly.

                       3  ...            B-B4
                       4  P-Kt6          PxP
                       5  Kt-Kt5         Kt-B3
                       6  KtxB           KxKt
                       7  PxP _ch_       K-Kt1
                       8  RxKt           RxR
                       9  BxP _ch_       K-B1
                      10  B-Kt5

As we are at present studying methods of defence, we shall not pause to
consider whether White has always chosen the best moves. For instance,
here he could have won a piece by simply playing 10 BxR, but Black would
have obtained a strong passed pawn after 10 ...R-B7; 11 B-Kt5, RxQ; 12
BxQ, RxQKtP; etc. White hopes to do better by a direct attack. His idea
is that, as the QR has to move away, he can continue as follows: 11 BxR,
PxB (if 11 ... QxB; 12 R-KB1, winning the Queen); 12 P-Kt7 _ch_, K-K2;
13 P-Kt8(Q). This is the combination prepared by White 10 moves before.
Has Black a valid defence against this threat?

                      10  ...            R-R2

Here it is. The Rook commands the whole of its second rank and prevents
P-Kt7. The third rank was guarded by a Rook. This barrier broke down;
now Black has set up another and stronger one on the second rank. It
provides a magnificent illustration of the defensive powers of a Rook,
acting across the whole of the chessboard. Now White can do nothing
better than win back the exchange, remaining with Bishops of opposite
colours. A most instructive warning not to be content vaguely to say:
"The piece I have attacked will have to move away somewhere," but to
ascertain clearly where that somewhere might be. In attacking the QR,
White thought it would have to move somewhere, and left it at that. We
have seen, on the contrary, that a well-thought-out retreat can be of
inestimable value.

                      11  BxR            PxB

The defence has succeeded brilliantly.

This closes the section on passive defence, and we shall now pass on to
active defence, leading to the counter-attack.


_(b) Counter-attack_


We have stated that every defensive scheme should allow for a possible
counter-attack, which must be prepared in good time. In order to be
successful the basic object of a counter-attack, as well as the
available means to carry it out, must be well understood. But the great
difficulty is to gauge the right moment to launch such a counter-attack,
and yet this is the most important point. A premature counter-attack is
usually doomed to failure, as is one which starts too late. But when
properly timed and aimed at important objects with sufficient forces, it
frequently succeeds.

In Diag. 62, White has launched a powerful attack against the hostile
King. The drawback in his position


                               DIAGRAM 62

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #B |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #R |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #Q |    | #P |    | #B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | ^B | #Kt| ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P | ^B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Q |    |    |    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Tarrasch
                              Match, 1908


is that he is unable to advance the KRP and KBP with the required speed.
The BP in particular will be troublesome, and the hostile Queen is on
the same diagonal, closed for the time being, but liable to be opened at
any moment. Thus we discover the nucleus of a counter-attack by Black.

                       1  P-Kt4          P-Kt3
                       2  Kt-R6 _ch_     K-Kt2
                       3  P-Kt5          B-Q1
                       4  Q-Kt3

With multiple threats--against the Kt, the QP, the QR. There is also the
threatened transfer of the Q to KR6 _via_ R4.

                       4  ...            P-B3

Correct play! Black not only defends himself, but he endeavours to open
the KB file, which is bearing upon White's KB2, the critical square
against which Black's counter-attack is to be directed. If White defends
himself by 5 P-KR4, the continuation would be: 5 ... PxP; 6 PxP, RxB; 7
QxR, BxP; and if 8 QxB, there follows 8 ... Kt-B6 _ch_.

                       5  Kt-B5 _ch_     K-R1
                       6  Kt-R4          PxP
                       7  BxP            BxB
                       8  QxB            P-Q6

Now the diagonal aiming at White's KB2 is open; Black's counter-attack
has started.

                       9  K-R1           R-B7

The other Rook gets into play. A Rook on the 7th is always dangerous.
There is nothing much left of White's original attack.

                      10  R-K3           R(B1)xP
                      11  Kt-Kt2         P-Q7
                      12  R-KKt1         R-QB8
                      13  Q-K7           RxR _ch_
                      14  KxR            P-Q8(Q) _ch_

and Black mates in a few moves.

During the battle of the Marne, Foch wrote, "My front is broken, my
right wing is retreating, my left wing is in flight, I counter-attack."

Diag. 63 presents us with a magnificent example of a counter-attack
which has practically become a necessity, since a passive defence would
almost certainly have led to disaster. White's Kt at Q4 is pinned, nor
can his Queen leave the Q file to relieve the pin as then the Kt would
be lost. As Black also threatens to win this Kt by ... Kt-B4; White is
unable to make the necessary


                               DIAGRAM 63

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #K | #R |    | #B |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt|    | #B |    |    | #Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #Q |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    | ^Kt|    | ^B |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q | ^K | ^B |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Janowski
                              Match, 1910


preparations for castling. Thus the King must remain in the centre: most
players would lose heart in such circumstances. But with admirable calm
White extricates himself from this parlous situation and, aided by some
timid moves by his adversary, even succeeds in winning the game
brilliantly.

White's chief weakness is his King's exposed position in the centre,
therefore he must at all costs make castling possible. Next he must
attend to his Kt at Q4: here counter-threats will come into play.

                       1  P-QKt4         Q-K4

It is strange that Janowski, a most enterprising player, should have
missed the continuation: 1 ... BxP; 2 PxB, QxP; 3 R-B1, Kt-B4; or,
better still, the more subtle: 1 ... KtxP; 2 PxKt, BxP; 3 RxQ, BxKt
_ch_; 4 K-K2, (4 B-Q2, RxKt); BxR, etc.

                       2  Kt(B3)-Kt5

A most ingenious defence of the Kt at Q4. He could have guarded this
piece by 2 Kt(B3)-K2, but his B would have been shut in and all hope of
castling would have vanished. But now he has the chance of an attack.
For instance, against 2 ... P-R3; he can play the Queen to B1, pinning
Black's QKt witha strong attack, e.g.: 3 Q-B1, PxKt; 4 KtxKt, PxKt; 5
QxP _ch_, Q-B2; 6 Q-R6 _ch_, etc. Still stronger would be: 3 KtxKt, RxQ
_ch_; 4 RxR, and it is difficult for Black to defend himself against
White's multiple threats. The position is full of potential
combinations.

                       2  ...            Kt-B4

The King cannot move away as 3 KtxKt _ch_, would make everything safe.

                       3  R-B1

By pinning Black's QKt, White safe guards his own. He gives up a pawn to
relieve the pressure.

                       3  ...            KtxB

To accept the offer is doubtful policy. He could have continued the
attack by 3 ... B-K2.

                       4  PxKt           QxP _ch_
                       5  B-K2           B-K2

Well played! The QR is now guarded and another piece comes into play.
Had he played 5 ... B-Kt6; as has been suggested, the dangers of his
position would have stood out clearly after 6 KtxP _ch_, K-B2 (6 ...
K-Kt1; 7 Kt(Q4)xKt _ch_; 7 Kt(Q4)-Kt5 _ch_, K-Kt3 (7 ... K-Kt1; 8 QxR
_ch_, with 9 R-B8 _mate_); 8 RxKt _ch_, PxR; 9 QxR _ch_, and wins.

                       6  R-B3

If the Q moves White can castle, maintaining his attack against the
black King. Should black meekly forgo his advantage or continue the
attack? In the latter case, Black again would have an interesting
combination, as follows: 6 ... QxR _ch_; 7 KtxQ, KtxKt;, with many
prospective chances. But once more he cannot summon up the necessary
pluck.

                       6  ...            B-R5 _ch_
                       7  P-Kt3          Q-K5

Had Black played ... B-K2; on his third move, his Queen would still be
at K4, and he could have continued with ... BxP _ch_; demolishing
White's K side.

                       8  Castles        B-B3
                       9  RxB

White, on the contrary, counter-attacks with vigour. He eliminates a
piece which attacks his Knight, and as Black's KR is out of play, he has
an extra piece to take part in the attack.

                       9  ...            PxR
                      10  B-B3           Q-K4

Three white pieces are now attacking the Knight, which is guarded only
once.

                      11  KtxP _ch_      K-B2
                      12  Kt(R7)xKt      PxKt
                      13  RxP _ch_       K-Kt1
                      14  R-Kt6 _ch_     K-B1
                      15  Q-B1 _ch_      K-Q2
                      16  KtxB

and White won in a few moves.

A player who is at a positional disadvantage can have recourse to an
attack in order to redress the balance, even when his opponent is not
conducting an attack, but is endeavouring to crush him by simple
positional manoeuvres. This cannot be termed a counter-attack, since
there is no attack. Nevertheless, an illustration of such a case is
appropriate here.

White's advantage in the position shown in Diag. 64


                               DIAGRAM 64

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #Q |    |    | #R |    | #K |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | #Kt|    |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    | #B |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | ^P |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | #P | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^Q | ^B |    | ^Kt|    | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |
                --------------------------------------- 

                   _White:_ Euwe; _Black:_ Alekhine
                              Match, 1935


is obvious. Black's position shows a number of weaknesses, and his
pieces are badly placed. White even threatens to launch a K side attack
by 1 P-KKt4, or, alternatively, he could start an action on the other
wing, aiming at the weak squares at QB6, Q6, and K6. Black therefore
gives him the opportunity of a combination which, however, eliminates
White's attacking Bishop.

                       1  KtxP           BxB
                       2  KtxQP          Q-Kt1
                       3  KtxP           B-B3
                       4  Kt-Q2

Black now has won a piece for three united pawns, of which two are
passed pawns in the centre--not a particularly favourable exchange. But
in giving his adversary this opportunity, Black had something else in
view, as the sequel shows.

                       4  ...            P-KKt4

Having eliminated the hostile Bishop and holding the long diagonal with
his own, he now begins a K side attack which counteracts the advance of
the pawns in the centre.

                       5  P-K4           PxP
                       6  PxP            B-Q5

Evidently he cannot allow his Bishop to be shut in.

                       7  P-K5           Q-K1
                       8  P-K6           R-KKt1

Combining already! If 9 PxKt, Q-K7; wins the Kt and White's disrupted
pawns are powerless.

                       9  Kt-B3          Q-Kt3

Black probably visualised this combination when playing his first move.
He clearly has obtained a very strong attacking position, and White will
need no little ingenuity in order to steer clear of disaster.

                      10  R-KKt1

Such are the desperate means to which White must have recourse to save
the game. He gives up the exchange for the sake of eliminating the
well-posted black Bishop. He can then hope to regain the initiative by
occupying the long black diagonal with his Queen, and with a Rook on the
KKt file.

                      10  ...            BxR
                      11  RxB

Hypnotised by the long diagonal, Black played here 11 ... Q-B3; and
finally lost the game. He probably could have drawn by 11 ... Q-B4;
closing the diagonal with 12 ... Kt-B3; or, if 12 PxKt, RxR _ch_; with
perpetual check.

It remains to be said that, when launching an attack from an inferior
position, one does not necessarily play all out for a win; a draw is a
very satisfactory result. We could add that, if such an attack leads to
complications in which the opponent might lose his way, it is preferable
to a slow and certain loss.

It is a difficult task to combine a passive defence with a future
attack, but, at times, this policy leads to surprising results. In order
to elaborate such a system of defence, in which a prospective attack
plays an important part, it is essential not only to grasp the salient
points of the hostile attack, but also to foresee, at least on broad
lines, the means of defence and the prospects of the counter-attack.

In Diag. 65 White has already initiated an assault on


                               DIAGRAM 65

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #B |    | #Kt|    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #B | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | #P | ^Kt|    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^B | ^P | ^Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    | ^Kt|    |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

               _White:_ Colle; _Black:_ Znosko-Borovsky
                               Nice, 1930


the hostile K side, although the opening stage has barely been
concluded. Black must take measures against the attack, and, if
possible, repel it. His first move is:

                       1  ...            R-B2

With the idea of a passive defence of the QB, and of placing the KKt at
K5 after ... Q-R1; thus closing the diagonal of the dangerous white KB.
Incidentally, this plan is intended to lead to a counter-attack on the K
side, at some unspecified future time, by means of ... P-B4; and, if
opportune, the advance of the other K side pawns. Before the pawns on
the attacked flank can advance safely, a Rook must be posted behind
them. We have already seen a Rook participate in the defence of the K
side by taking up a position on the second rank; in the present instance
the idea of a prospective counter-attack is allied to this defensive
scheme.

                       2  P-Kt5          BxKt
                       3  BPxB           Kt-K5

As the KKtP is no longer protected, this move can be made without losing
a pawn.

                       4  P-KR4          P-B4

With two white pieces out of play Black initiates his counter-attack. At
the moment he defends his Knight, but already offers a pawn in
sacrifice.

                       5  KPxP _e.p._

He could have gained a pawn by 5 KtPxP _e.p._, KtPxP; 6 Q-Kt4 _ch_, but
Black's attack an the KR and KKt files would be too strong.

                       5  ...            KtPxP
                       6  P-Kt6

White is pressing on the attack rather than discontinuing it. Better
would be 6 KtxKt.

                       6  ...            P-B4
                       7  BxKt

After 7 PxP _ch_, K-R1; Black immediately occupies the open files.

                       7  ...            QPxB
                       8  Q-Kt3          R-KB3

It would be simpler to play 8 ... Kt-B3; in order to bring the QR into
play more speedily.

                       9  P-R5           PxKtP
                      10  R-B2           Kt-B1
                      11  Kt-B4          PxQP
                      12  Kt-K5          PxBP
                      13  PxBP           R-KR2

At last, after 12 moves, Black's idea triumphs. With the entry of the QR
into the game on the K side, where White was attacking, the tide has
turned and Black wrests the initiative from his adversary.

                      14  B-R3           PxP

And finally Black won. It must not be thought that Black, in making his
first move, foresaw the whole of the subsequent development; the fact of
merely conceiving the idea enabled him to find the correct move on which
his subsequent play was based.

At times, instead of a long and complicated counterattack, a short and
simple combination suffices to save the game, and if it is a case of a
tactical opportunity and not a simple blunder on the part of the
attacker, such a game may culminate in a brilliant finish. But as a
general rule one can observe a certain degree of inattention on the part
of the aggressor who, immersed in his own strategic plans and
combinations, pays insufficient heed to his opponent's intentions.

In Diag. 66 White conducts what appears to be a winning attack. Probably
he would have caused his opponent the most serious difficulties with 1
Kt-Q6. Instead of that he continued in straightforward and humdrum
fashion:

                       1  Kt-Kt5

This short-sighted move affords Black a tactical opportunity of which he
is not slow to avail himself.

                       1  ...            P-B3


                               DIAGRAM 66

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R |    |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B |    |    | #Q | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    | #P | ^Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #B |    | ^P |    |    | #Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | #P | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^B |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^R |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Landau; _Black:_ Reshevsky
                             Kemeri, 1937


Although compulsory, this move gives Black unexpected chances; by
opening the KB file, he threatens White's KBP, and the power of the two
Bishops becomes devastating.

                       2  PxP

The sacrifice of a Bishop by 2 BxP, etc., leads to nothing, as can
easily be ascertained.

                       2  ...            BxP _ch_

It is possible that White had not foreseen this sacrifice and that he
only reckoned with the simple recapture 2 ... RxP.

                       3  KxB            QxP _ch_

As a result of his sacrifice Black can now recapture with the Queen,
threatening mate. White's next move is therefore compulsory and his
short-lived onslaught is at an end.

                       4  Kt-B3          BxKt
                       5  PxB            QxP _ch_
                       6  K-Kt1          R-B5

The attack is now definitely in Black's hands, and, as is often the case
with counter-attacks, it is immediately successful, the opponent's
position being weakened. Black now threatens mate, and there is no
defence.

                       7  QxR            KtxQ
                       8  B-B1           R-B4

and Black won easily.


_(c) Exchanges_


We have seen that the player who has the advantage often wishes to bring
about an end game, because there his advantage will be of greater
comparative value. Similarly there are cases where the weaker party will
be actuated by the same desire when his disadvantage is likely to be
less decisive in the end game. A seemingly lost game can often be saved
in that way. The whole point of the matter is to be able to decide which
type of end game would be the most advantageous and to know how to bring
it about.

In Diag. 67 Black has a very bad game; he is losing


                               DIAGRAM 67

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #K |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #Kt| #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #R |    |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    |    |    | ^K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^R |    |    |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Schlechter; _Black:_ Lasker
                              Match, 1911


a pawn whilst White has two united pawns on the K side; his pieces are
so well placed that he can almost threaten mate. The end seems
inevitable. How can such a position as Black's be saved?

                       1  R-B7 _ch_      K-B3

The King must avoid the first rank because of 2 R-B8 _ch_ or Kt-Kt6
_ch_.

                       2  Kt-Q5 _ch_     K-Kt4

If 2 ... K-K3; 3 P-B4 (threatening mate), R-K1; 4 R-KR7, and wins.

                       3  P-R4 _ch_      K-R3
                       4  Kt-K7

The moment has arrived when Black must decide which course to pursue. He
has three isolated pawns, of which one is attacked and another will be
threatened (Q3) on the next move. He cannot protect both and he must
decide which one he is going to abandon and at what precise moment. The
problem is not difficult but most instructive; it is fairly obvious that
he cannot afford to let his KBP go as White would then have two united
passed pawns. In other words, he must maintain this pawn at any cost.

                       4  ...            R-KB1
                       5  R-Q1

Another pawn is attacked and this one cannot be defended. Black seeks to
reach an end game in which he is most likely to hold his own, namely, a
R and P ending after exchanging the Knights.

                       5  ...            R-B2
                       6  RxP _ch_       K-R2
                       7  R-K6           Kt-Kt3
                       8  RxKt           RxKt
                       9  R(Kt6)-QB6     RxR
                      10  RxR _ch_       K-Kt3
                      11  R-B6 _ch_      K-B2

This is exactly the ending which Black desired. But what shall we say
when we see him deliberately giving up a second pawn in order to secure
a draw?

                      12  K-B3           R-K5
                      13  R-B5           K-B3
                      14  RxP

And this ending leads to a forced draw! Thanks to his grasp of the
essentials of the position, Black has succeeded in holding his KBP and
his position as well.

In Diag. 68 Black's position is manifestly inferior: not only is his
Bishop pinned, but he is in consequence threatened with the loss of a
pawn. At the same time his Q side pawns are weakened to such an extent
that they will be very difficult to defend and the loss of another pawn
is almost a foregone conclusion. Castling would be no remedy, as he
would immediately lose a


                               DIAGRAM 68

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    | #K |    |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    | #B |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | #P |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Marczy; _Black:_ Tarrasch
                          San Sebastian, 1911


pawn in the centre after an exchange of minor pieces and would still
labour under his disability on the Q side, leading to further loss. His
plan of defence develops as follows: he will protect his B as much as
possible and use the time White will spend in attacking it on improving
his pawn position, finally letting the least important pawn go.

                       1  ...            K-K2
                       2  R-K5

Attacking the QBP with a threat of doubling his Rooks. 2 P-KB4, contains
no immediate threat, because after 2 ... P-Kt3; 3 P-Kt4, the threat of 4
P-B5 is not dangerous, e.g., 4 ... PxP; 5 PxP, R-KKt1; threatening the
Knight which is now pinned.

                       2  ...            QR-QB1
                       3  QR-K1          R-B3
                       4  P-KB4          P-Kt3
                       5  P-Kt4

The decisive moment! White threatens both P-B5, and Kt-K4, attacking
either the B or the QBP. If Black plays ... KR-QB1; both his Rooks will
be tied to the defence of the pawns.

                       5  ...            P-B5

Countering White's intentions and threatening to advance still further.

                       6  P-R4

Preparing the advance of the KBP, but K-B2, would have been better.

                       6  ...            P-R3
                       7  KtxB           RxKt
                       8  RxR _ch_       PxR
                       9  P-B5           PxP
                      10  PxP            K-B3
                      11  RxP _ch_       KxP
                      12  RxQRP

White has won a pawn, but in consequence of Black's skilful manoeuvring,
it is only a RP. White has only four pawns left, of which the KRP is
threatened by the well-posted King; in addition, Black's two Q side
pawns are very strong and his Rook is admirably posted. The game ended
in a draw.


_(d) Bringing about an End Game_


In a way, the transition into the end game is an example of
simplification by exchanges. The attacker exchanges such of his pieces
as do not contribute to his superiority against the well-developed
pieces of his opponent. The defender acts in a similar manner, following
the precept that, wherever possible, it is of advantage for him to
exchange his passive pieces for his opponent's more active pieces. There
are numerous examples, but we shall only give one, a well-known one from
the openings. It is a variation of the Queen's Gambit Declined, Orthodox
Defence, in which, by a subtle


                               DIAGRAM 69

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    | #Kt| #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #P | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    | ^B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt| ^B | ^P | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R | ^Q | ^K |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 


manoeuvre, Black brings about the exchange of three of his pieces, and,
as White's attack has now lost much of its sting, Black should emerge
unscathed, after which his prospects for the end game, with three pawns
against two on the Q. side, will be favourable.

1 ...PxP; 2 BxP, Kt-Q4; 3 BxB, QxB; 4 Castles, KtxKt; 5 RxKt, P-K4; 6
KtxP, KtxKt; 7 PxKt, QxKt; etc.


                          IV. EVEN POSITIONS

                    1. COMBINATION OF THE ELEMENTS


We now come to the most important as well as the most difficult part of
our studies--even positions. They are important because they will occur
every time we play chess, the initial position being even and remaining
so after every correctly played opening; and difficult because the
objective is less clear than in any other part of the game. It is easy
to attack when we know what we seek to achieve, nor is it difficult to
decide on a defence when we know where our weakness lies. But in a
position of equality players are often at a loss what to do, and what to
seek, and handicapped, moreover, by a well-grounded fear that an
unconsidered move or a lack of understanding of the position may give
the opponent an advantage leading to a win.

It must not be thought that in such positions there is equality in every
respect. There may have been a loss in one element, a gain in another,
which may balance each other and produce equality in the position as a
whole.

Take, for instance, the position in Diag. 70. The positions are entirely
dissimilar; each has its own chances, its own difficulties. White, for
instance, cannot castle on the K side, nor can he develop his Bishop
without losing a pawn. On the other hand, Black has an isolated as well
as a doubled pawn, his Bishop is shut in, and it will not be easy for
him to castle.

 1  Castles

A risky move seeking, at the cost of a pawn, to take


                               DIAGRAM 70

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B |    | #K |    | #R |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    |    | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt|    | #P | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Q |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Q |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    |    | ^K | ^B |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Lasker; _Black:_ Marshall
                              Match, 1907


advantage of the position of Black's King in the centre by initiating a
direct attack.

                       1  ...            QxRP

We see that an equal position does not necessarily lead to slow and
uninteresting play.

                       2  P-Q5           PxP
                       3  B-Kt5          K-B1
                       4  BxKt           PxB
                       5  QxKBP

Threatening both Kt-Kt5, and KR-K1, whilst the Queen maintains the
protection of the weak QKtP.

                       5  ...            Q-R8 _ch_
                       6  K-Q2           Q-R4 _ch_
                       7  P-B3           R-Kt1

Because the QKtP is now left unguarded. If 8 R-QKt1, P-Q5; and the Black
Queen defends her KKt4; and if then 9 QxQP, B-B4.

                       8  Kt-Kt5         RxP _ch_
                       9  K-K1           RxKt

The only defence against QxP _mate_. Now if White captures the R, Black
threatens ... B-R3; and ... QxP _ch_.

                      10  Q-Q8 _ch_      K-Kt2
                      11  QxR _ch_       K-B1

And this lively game ended in a draw.

Even positions can show still greater discrepancies in various elements
than those illustrated in the preceding example. Each side may be
conducting an attack on opposite wings. In such cases great caution is
necessary, as always when there is only a small advantage. But when an
attack is launched where the attacker has a marked advantage on one side
and a disadvantage on the other (where the opponent is attacking), it is
often essential to throw in all one's resources, in order to be first in
reaching the objective.

This state of affairs obtains in the position shown in Diag. 71. The
sequel is an extraordinary example of chess of the highest class.

A complete analysis from the point of view of our three elements would
show that the position is one of equality, the difference being that
White is more active and has; in particular, a K side attack, whilst
Black has threats on the Q side. White's attack is the more dangerous
inasmuch as it can lead to a mate, but there is no weakness in Black's
camp and his plan will be to hold White's attack and to obtain a
preponderance on the Q side with the ultimate object of obtaining an
advanced passed pawn and queening it.

This result is not an unlikely one as Black's pieces are as well posted
as White's, although, they are less active.


                               DIAGRAM 71

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    | #Q | #R | #Kt| #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B |    |    | #B | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P | ^Kt|    | ^B |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    | ^P | ^Q |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B | ^R |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Pillsbury; _Black:_ Tarrasch
                             Hastings, 1895


But his Rooks are admirably placed and able to support the advance of
the pawns. Black has a pawn-majority on the Q side, which is of
considerable importance, especially in view of the fact that White's
extra pawn on the K side (his KP) is backward and plays, and always will
play, a secondary role.

Thus White's only hope is, centred in his attack, whilst Black has every
incentive to bring about an end game. His first concern will be to stand
up against the storm which presently will break. That the situation is
extremely critical can be seen from the following variation: let Black
play 1 ... Kt-K3; and he loses forthwith, as follows: 2 BxKt, BxB; 3 BxP
_ch_, KxB; 4 QR5 _ch_, K-Kt1; 5 QxP _ch_, followed by 6 QxQB. The
defence clearly calls for the utmost caution. But Black, unless he makes
a careless move, is for the moment sufficiently well protected, while
White, in order to succeed with his attack, must bring up another piece.
The question is which? Either the QKt or the KR by opening the KKt file
by P-KKt4, which is a lengthy and risky manoeuvre. In the meantime Black
will advance his Q side pawns, but without haste, as he might obtain a
passed but isolated pawn which could easily be stopped. The only pieces
available for the support of the pawn-advance are the Rooks, the other
pieces being required for the defence of the King's field, although it
may become possible for one or the other, especially the Queen, to
combine both tasks--the defence of the King's field and the support of
the Q side pawns. Thus Black's threat also demands a great deal of time,
for which reason the positions may be said to be even.

                       1  Kt-K2          Kt-K5

Every exchange is in Black's favour, as thereby the defence becomes
easier, the attacking forces are diminished in numbers and the end game
is so much nearer. The text move, at one stroke, deals with his
adversary's two Bishops, as the exchange is forced because of the
threatened advance of Black's KBP to B3.

                       2  BxB            RxB
                       3  BxKt           PxB
                       4  Q-Kt3

The first skirmish is over, and we can take stock of the new situation.
White has obtained a passed pawn and has weakened Black's Q side pawns:
He now threatens P-B5, followed by Kt-B4, bringing up the additional
piece which was needed for the attack. His KP is strengthened by the
fact that the K file is now closed, and thus no attack is to be feared
at the moment. What has Black achieved? He has eliminated White's two
Bishops and freed his Q4. From this point either his Q or his B can
assume the twofold task which we have mentioned, namely, defence of his
King's field and support of his Q side pawns. Again the positions are
more or less balanced. The interesting part of this game lies precisely
in the fact that, up to the end, it is played by both sides with the
greatest mastery, so that any advantage gained by either player is
immediately neutralised by a corresponding gain by his rival. This is
why we give a more complete analysis of this important contest.
Considerations of space preclude our treating other games in the same
way, but the reader can do this for himself.

What are now White's actual threats? He can advance the KBP and attack
Black's isolated KP. To this end he will need 7 moves (P-B5, Q-R4, R-B1,
R-B4, Kt-Kt4, Kt-B2, Kt-Kt3 or Kt-B3) and Black, in order to defend the
pawn, needs but 5 moves (P-B3, B-Q4, Q-Q2, Q-B3, QR-K1); he has
therefore ample time, which is the justification for his previous
exchanges. He can utilise his extra _tempi_ in advancing his Q side
pawns. In any event he will have to make a supplementary defensive move,
for after Kt-Kt4, White threatens KtxP _ch_, or Kt-R6 _ch_, which forces
... K-R1. The claims of the defence are paramount for Black and moves on
the Q side can only be entertained by him as long as his K side is
secure.

                       4  ...            P-B3
                       5  Kt-Kt4         K-R1
                       6  P-B5           Q-Q2
                       7  R-B1           R-Q1
                       8  R-B4           Q-Q3
                       9  Q-R4           QR-K1
                      10  Kt-B3          B-Q4
                      11  Kt-B2          Q-B3

A fresh series of moves, embodying the next manoeuvre, is thus
completed, and again a position of stable equilibrium has resulted. We
must, however, record the fact that Black, with some moves to spare, has
marked time, and has accomplished nothing with his Q side pawns; at the
moment this wavering has no serious consequences, but when the crisis
arrives it may be that one single move may save or win the game. All
Black's pieces are now available for the defence and nothing stands in
the way of the beginning of his advance on the Q side. His plan is
clear: ... P-Kt5; and, after White's QKt has departed, ... Q-R5;
attacking the QRP, with the object of either weakening White's pawn
formation or of causing him to withdraw some of his pieces from the
attack. Black has every justification for commencing his advance; he has
made 18 useful moves against 12 by White, or, in other words, he is 6
moves ahead. It is difficult to see how White, who has also made only
good moves, can have lost so much time! It is a curious and frequently
observed fact that, in order to obtain an attacking position, it is
often necessary to sacrifice time, and in the present game we shall have
occasion to note that Black himself will be in the same predicament as
soon as he starts to execute his threats on the Q side.

White's next problem is to bring up another piece for the attack, this
time the QR after P-KKt4, which move can be made with safety now that
Black's KP intercepts the line of his Bishop.

                      12  R-B1           P-Kt5
                      13  Kt-K2          Q-R5

An immediate advance by the QBP would be of little use, e.g.: 13 ...
P-B6; 14 PxP, PxP; 15 Kt-Q1, P-B7; 16 KKt-B3, B-B5; 17 P-Q5,
BxQP; 18 R-B1, and the QBP falls. But now White is facing a serious
problem--how to protect his QRP. If 14 Kt-B1, then 14 ... Q-B7;
attacking the QKtP; followed by ... Q-Q6; attacking the KP. The solution
is to combine attack and defence, and this White does in a manner as
well-calculated as it is attractive.

                      14  Kt-Kt4

Threatening, KtxP. As soon as a black piece has been withdrawn from the
defence, its absence is felt.

                      14  ...            Kt-Q2

It is a pity to have to displace this Knight which was so well placed
for the defence of the KRP, and the squares at Black's K3 and KKt3. But
unless Black resigns himself to a purely defensive game and forgoes any
attempt to win, he has to take a certain amount of risk.

                      15  R(B4)-B2

A subtle defence of the QRP. The Rook makes room for a Knight and if 15
... QxP; then 16 Kt-B4, (threatening Kt-Kt6 _ch_), B-B2; 17 Kt-Kt6 _ch_,
BxKt; 18 PxB, P-R3; 19 KtxRP, winning easily. Again the withdrawal of a
piece from its defensive position has conjured up all sorts of
difficulties--even threats of mate. It is clear that White's QRP cannot,
as yet, be captured.

                      15  ...            K-Kt1
                      16  Kt-B1

And now the square QB2 is guarded as well as the QRP.

                      16  ...            P-B6
                      17  P-QKt3         Q-B3

If we now count the moves, we shall see that Black has the same number,
18, as before to his credit, whilst White has 16 instead of 12; he has
gained 4 moves, confirming what we said before.

The game is now nearing its end; threats are less numerous but more
intense. White has thrown the whole of his forces into the attack except
the QKt, which is attending to the defence--splendid strategy. All of
Black's pieces are co-operating in the defence. But if he wishes to
succeed with his own attack he will have to detail at least one piece
for that purpose. What is his plan of attack in the present
circumstances? The only possible one is to advance the RP and exchange
it for the QKtP; then he will occupy the QR file with a Rook and attack
the QKtP with R and B. It is possible to calculate exactly the number of
moves required in the process. The number is 4 moves; on the 5th move
the QKtP will be attacked twice. Now what of White? Again there is only
one possible plan: the opening of the KKt file. This also will require 4
moves, but on the 4th move the KBP will be already under attack. Had
Black not lost one or two moves in his earlier manoeuvres his threat
would be the first to mature.

                      18  P-KR3          P-QR4
                      19  Kt-R2          P-R5
                      20  P-Kt4

Now Black must decide between two courses: he must either ruthlessly
continue the advance on the Q side or take some defensive measures to
stop White's advance on the K side. This he could achieve by 20 ...
P-R3; upon which White would have to play 21 Q-Kt3 (preparing for
P-R4.), and Black would have time to defend himself by 21 ... Kt-B1; 22
P-R4, Kt-R2; 23 P-Kt5, KRPxP; 24 Kt-Kt4, PxRP; 25 QxP, Kt-Kt4;
threatening 26 ... Kt-B6 _ch_. If 25 R-R2, then 25 ... K-B1; leaving it
to the Bishop to guard Black's KKt1. Thus even against a passive defence
White would not find it easy to utilise the open file and bring the
missing piece--the Rook--into the attack. But Black prefers to attack
himself, in the belief that he will reach his objective ahead of his
adversary.

                       20 ...            PxP
                       21 PxP            R-R1


                               DIAGRAM 72

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    |    |    |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Kt| #R |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Q |    |    | #P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #B |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | ^P | #P |    | ^P | ^Q |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P | #P |    | ^P |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^R |    | ^Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 


                      22  P-Kt5

Let us examine the respective threats. If Black exchanges pawns, then 23
QxKtP (threatening P-B6), Q-B3; 24 Q-Kt3, threatening Kt-Kt4. There is
no defence against P-B6, and Kt-K5. If instead of 23 ... Q-B3; Black
plays 23 ... Kt-B3; then again 24 Kt-Kt4, follows, threatening both
Kt-K5, and R-KKt2 (the Knight cannot be taken because of QxR). Therefore
Black cannot himself take the pawn, but must leave it to White to effect
the exchange. He can thus get in a move in furtherance of his own
attack.

                      22  ...            R-R6
                      23  Kt-Kt4

White would gain nothing by capturing the KBP at once, as Black would
recapture with the pawn or even the Queen and after Q-Kt3, he would play
... P-R4; preventing Kt-Kt4. Hence White plays the text-move,
threatening PxP, and giving up the QKtP. We have now reached the turning
point in the battle. Both players had anticipated this position many
moves ahead and had analysed it thoroughly.

If we now count the moves we find that Black has 17 moves against 19 by
White. Against this deficit of 2 moves he can win a pawn. But this pawn
is on the Q side and can only be of value if White's attack should fail.
But White is on the point of opening the KKt file and of bringing into
play the additional piece which is required: his object is then
achieved. The climax of the game is at hand, the issue hangs by a
thread. The next few moves will decide the battle and confirm or refute
the players' calculations.

Black cannot take the KKtP (23 ... PxP; 24 QxP, Kt-B3; 25 R-KKt2, with a
winning attack) and he must therefore take the QKtP, the object of his
attack, and hope for the best. After 23 ... BxP; White cannot play 24
KtxB, RxKt; because of ... R-Kt7; which would nullify the effect of
White's Rook at KKt2. He therefore plays his Rook to KKt2 first, forcing
the black King to move.

                      23  ...            BxP
                      24  R-KKt2         K-R1
                      25  PxP            PxP

If 25 ... KtxP; 26 Kt-K5, threatening 27 KtKt6 _ch_.

                      26  KtxB           RxKt
                      27  Kt-R6

With a terrible mating threat by R-Kt8. If 27 ... R-K1; 28 Kt-B7,
_mate_. Two white squares are defenceless because the Bishop has gone.
The extra piece which White has at last succeeded in bringing into the
attack decides the game. The black King, denuded of pieces, is
defenceless against the powerful threats. Thus White's strategy has
triumphed.

There is one point, however, to which we wish to draw the reader's
Attention. The game is lost because Black lacks the help of his Bishop.
If he had captured the QKtP with his Rook, giving up the exchange, he
would have preserved his Bishop, which was so essential for the defence,
and the two united passed pawns, supported by the Bishop, would have
been more than a match for a Rook. Black had this tactical opportunity
and failed to take it. Either he did not see it, or he underestimated
the dangers of the situation, or he lacked the pluck to make this
sacrifice. White, on the other hand, did not hesitate to sacrifice a
whole Kt. Black did not lose because of a faulty conception; his
tactical failure in its execution was his downfall.

                      27  ...            R-Kt2
                      28  RxR            KxR
                      29  Q-Kt3 _ch_     KxKt
                      30  K-R1

The plausible 30 R-B4, would be bad because of checks by Black's Rook on
its 7th and 8th ranks.

                      30  ...            Q-Q4
                      31  R-KKt1         QxBP
                      32  Q-R4 _ch_      Q-R4
                      33  Q-B4 _ch_      Q-Kt4
                      34  RxQ            PxR
                      35  Q-Q6 _ch_      K-R4
                      36  QxKt

and wins owing to the threat of QxP _mate_.

Nothing could be more instructive than the analysis of such a game.


              2. POSITIONS WITHOUT DISTINCTIVE FEATURES


Equal positions which show no particular characteristics are the most
difficult to treat. Such positions occur most frequently when the
opening stage has been passed, and the examples we shall give could
serve equally well as illustrations of the period of transition between
the opening and the middle game; but the same sort of thing can equally
well arise in the middle game proper.

If there is no weakness, with the forces on either side equally well
developed and "nothing to get hold of," a puzzling problem immediately
arises as to what to do. Still greater is the difficulty where the
positions are almost identical; it seems that there is nothing one can
do but to wait and see what the opponent is going to do, and watch
whether he makes a weak move. But, with the exception of entirely
symmetrical positions, it is rare indeed for a position to show no
distinctive feature at all. It may not be pronounced, it may be subtle
and difficult to discover, but it is nearly always there and requires
careful consideration. In the case of symmetrical positions, it is well
known that it is not practicable for one player to copy his opponent's
moves ad infinitum; there must come a time, even in such cases, when
some difference occurs which may give rise to a plan, be it ever so
cautious and slow.

The positions in Diag. 73 are almost symmetrical, the only difference
being that White's KB is at B2, and Black's at Kt3. Is this sufficient
to serve as a basis for


                               DIAGRAM 73

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #Q |    | #R | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B | #P | #P |    | #Kt| #Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P | ^P |    | ^Kt| ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^B |    |    | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                    _White:_ Riga; _Black:_ Berlin
                      A correspondence game, 1905


a plan of campaign? White would only need to play his Bishop to Kt3 or
Black to move his own to B2 to restore the symmetry; and that is what
not a few players, devotees of the draw, would do. But if the object is
to try to take advantage of the respective positions of the Bishops,
there would arise many interesting, and possibly conclusive,
considerations. It seems that Black's KB is the better placed; it
controls an open diagonal, and if White plays the obvious P-Q4, that
pawn would be in the line of the Bishop. On the other hand, White's KB
is blocked by his own centre pawns. In analysing the position more
closely, certain points will come to our notice which will alter our
first impression. First of all, White, in playing P-Q4, closes the black
Bishop's diagonal, which then cannot be reopened, whilst Black cannot
play the equally natural move ... P-Q4; because on the one hand his KP
is insufficiently protected, and on the other, White could open the
diagonal for his own KB by exchanging pawns. A further distinction is
that Black's KB is directed against White's KBP which is sufficiently
guarded, whereas White's KB aims at the KRP, always susceptible to a
sudden attack. The white Bishop's diagonal must not therefore be opened,
and such obvious moves, as ... P-Q4; ... P-KB4; and ... Kt-B5; cannot be
commended. As against this, White can afford to make any moves that
would help a sound development as well as a prospective attack. If we
add that White has the move, we can clearly perceive that he has
whatever advantage there is. He now has the choice of several lines of
play; after his first move P-Q4, he can continue with B-Kt5, threatening
Kt-R5, or with, Kt-B5. In this case, if Black plays ... BxKt; PxB, the
pawn at KB5 remains under the protection of the KB.

If Black, however, plays ... B-Kt5; there is no need for White to play
P-KR3, He can play Q-Q3, and allow his pawns to be doubled. Black could
not easily take advantage of it by playing ... Kt-B5; because after
BxKt, PxB; this pawn is unguarded. Thus, the more closely we examine the
position, the more do we realise that White's KB at B2 is more effective
than its counterpart at Kt3.

All this tends to show that White's game is the more aggressive and that
Black should be content quietly to complete his development, the most
natural course being ... R-K1; ... B-K3; ... P-KR3; ... Q-B2; ... QR-Q1;
and to counter White's prospective K side attack by counter play in the
centre. The alternative, re-establishing the symmetry by ... B-B2; would
mean for him a disadvantage in time of two moves.

But Black, having deliberately placed his KB at Kt3, desires to take the
utmost advantage of this, in his opinion, favourable position, and
initiates an attack. We must not be surprised if it fails--it is but
justice! The sequel shows in an instructive manner the consequences of
an action which does not conform to the nature of the position, and of a
strategic plan based on an erroneous assumption, or a wrong appreciation
of the situation.

                       1  P-Q4           B-Kt5
                       2  Q-Q3           Kt-R4

A vain attempt to establish this Knight at KB5.

                       3  KtxKt          BxKt(R4)
                       4  B-Kt5          Q-B2
                       5  Kt-Q2

Now Black's QB, like his KB, is also out of play and has no move. He
persists in trying to assume the initiative--when the defensive was his
proper course--with a view to bringing his Bishops back into the game,
as, e. g., by ... Kt-K2; ... P-B3; ... B-B2; after which the Kt could go
back to Kt3.

                       5  ...            P-KR3
                       6  B-K3           QR-K1
                       7  P-B3

Defending the KP and threatening at the same time to win the QB. With no
thought for his own safety, Black maintains his attack. It may be noted
that White disregards the hostile KB and has all but opened its
diagonal, directed against the white King.

                       7  ...            P-Q4
                       8  P-KKt4         KPxP
                       9  BPxP           P-QB4
                      10  Q-B3           Kt-B5
                      11  BxKt           QxB
                      12  PxB            BPxP
                      13  Q-Q3

and Black's attack has melted away.

This example has shown us how a plan can be built up on a minute
positional difference. The idea, however, was wrong and the attack
collapsed. Let us examine another example in which the difference in the
positions is equally insignificant. But here there is no misconception
and the game develops slowly, as it should, where the position shows no
pronounced characteristics.

In Diag. 74 the difference between the two camps lies in the position of
the respective Bishops: White's Bishops


                               DIAGRAM 74

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B | #Q | #R | #B | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #Kt| #P |    |    |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^P |    | ^P |    | ^Kt| ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^B |    |    |    | ^P | ^B | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    |    | ^Q |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Rubinstein; _Black:_ Duras
                             Carlsbad, 1911


are well developed and bear on the centre, whilst Black's Bishops stand
passively on their original squares, capable, however, of initiating an
action in the centre or on either flank. There is no question of an
attack, but of slow and well-considered manoeuvres. White's first object
is clear: by playing P-Q4, White prevents a similar answer by Black and
fixes Black's QP, a backward and isolated pawn, at his Q3. Of course,
White will not capture the KP, which would only round off the adverse
position; nor does he intend leaving his own QP at Q4, threatened by
Black after ... B-Kt5. His real intention is the further advance P-Q5.

Now Black's backward QP will prevent any action by the black Rooks on
the Q file, besides hindering the free circulation of the black pieces,
by dividing Black's position in two.

In order to get his attack going White will have to break up the black Q
side and take it in the flank with his Rooks and, especially, with his
Kt and B. Black can answer with the well-known advance ... P-KB4; though
it weakens the KP. He also has the chance of attacking White's KB by the
equally popular manoeuvre B-KR6, but that will imply play on the K side.
And now the problem is: shall he undertake an action on the K side on
the lines indicated, or shall he, on the contrary, take advantage of the
weaknesses created by White's P-Q4, and counter-attack on the Q side? In
order to decide the respective value of these two plans of campaign it
would almost be necessary to play two games to try them out; in the
present instance Black decided on action on the K side; he failed and
there is no merit in stating that he should have tried the other method.

                       1  P-Q4           B-Kt5
                       2  P-Q5           Kt-K2

In accordance with what has been said before, this Knight should
preferably have moved to Kt1 and from there to R3 or Q2 threatening B4
or Kt5 respectively.

                       3  Q-Q3           Q-Q2
                       4  Kt-Q2          B-R6

Thus White manoeuvres his pieces towards the Q side and Black brings his
forces to the opposite wing. Later on Black will find out that his
pressure is not equal to his adversary's, and will attempt to remedy the
defect by calling his forces back to the right place. By then it will be
too late; the time thus gained by White gives him a manifest advantage.

                       5  P-R4

The object of this move is to place his Knight at QB4, where he will be
unmolested. At the same time it initiates the pawn advance on the Q
side.

                       5  ...            BxB
                       6  KxB            KR-Kt1

At last Black gives a thought to the Queen's wing; he tries to isolate
and weaken the adverse pawn, a faulty enterprise which runs counter to
the principle: "Never open a line where you are weakest." But Black's
real difficulty is his Knight's unhappy position. Moreover, it cannot
return to the Q side, nor could it find a good square if it did get
there.

                       7  Kt-B4          P-QKt4
                       8  PxP            QxP

The position has become clearer. White is attacking the QRP and QP and
Black has designs on the QKtP.

                       9  R-R3           Kt-Kt3
                      10  KR-QR1         P-R3
                      11  B-B1

From Kt2 this Bishop could not participate in the action on the Q side.
It makes its way to a square from where it attacks the adverse QRP. The
fall of this pawn is a foregone conclusion. It is defended by the Queen
and two Rooks. But B-K3, will deprive the defence of one of the Rooks.
White, on the other hand, can attack it three times, whilst safeguarding
his own QKtP by Kt-Q2. Observe that the black Knight requires at least
three moves (B1, Q2, Kt1) to come to the rescue. So much time is not
available. As we have said, faulty mobilisation can seldom be rectified.

                      11  ...            R-Kt2
                      12  B-K3           P-B3
                      13  P-B3

Well played! He provides against the hostile threat of ... P-B4; before
embarking on his own schemes. If, for instance, 13 Q-B1, P-B4; 14 P-B3,
PxP; 15 PxP, R-KB2; Black has a strong attack. After the move in the
text, Black cannot yet play 13 ... P-B4; and White has time to play the
necessary Kt-Q2.

                      13  ...            Kt-K2
                      14  Q-B1           Kt-B1
                      15  Kt-Q2

The desired position is now attained and Black's pawn is lost.

                      15  ...            Q-Kt5
                      16  Q-B4

White forces the exchange of Queens to prevent any hostile attack; he
relies on his extra pawn to secure a win.

                      16  ...            QxQ
                      17  KtxQ           QR-Kt1
                      18  Kt-Q2

Guarding the QKtP; the hostile pawn cannot be saved.

                      18  ...            R-QB2
                      19  RxP            R-B7
                      20  R(R6)-R2       RxR
                      21  RxR

and White won without difficulty.

Games are lost through big or small mistakes; the last two games,
starting from even positions, were lost on account of erroneous
strategic ideas. As strategic plans can be evolved only on the basis of
a thorough analysis of the position, this analysis is absolutely
essential in positions which are lacking in definite character. Only a
minute analysis can help to discover those small details, at first sight
insignificant, which can serve as a starting point for an elaborate plan
of campaign.


                      3. UPSETTING THE BALANCE


Of paramount importance in even positions is the moment when the balance
is about to be disturbed. This does not necessarily happen in
consequence of an attack; simple and slow manoeuvring inevitably leads
to it. It is an anxious moment, for it means taking a path from which
there is no turning back; nor can one be quite sure where it is going to
lead. But the Russians have a proverb which says: "For fear of the
wolves one might never go into the forest": chess players must take
certain risks or give up playing chess. Cannot the very first move be
said to disturb the balance of the position?

The position in Diag. 75 is perfectly even and is near the end game
stage. Even though White has an extra move and a pawn in the centre, it
amounts to little in this position. Even Black's doubled pawns do not
represent a real weakness, as White lacks the necessary minor


                               DIAGRAM 75

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #R | #K |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P | #P |    | #Q | #P | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P |    |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Q |    | ^R |    |    | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    | ^P | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                 _White:_ Schlechter; _Black:_ Lasker
                              Match, 1911


pieces to take advantage of the fact, and these pawns are able to hold
quite easily the opposing three pawns. Each side has a majority of four
pawns to three on opposite wings, but as the KP counterbalances the QP
this again amounts to nothing. The positions must undoubtedly be
pronounced even, and in any event White has nothing to fear. An agreed
draw would be justified. But if the game is to be continued, the line of
play on either side is fairly obvious. If White wishes to turn his
majority on the K side to account, he will have to divert Black's QP,
which means he must advance his own QBP far forward, and this again will
accentuate Black's majority on the Q side.

White therefore begins with manoeuvres by which he seeks to weaken the
adverse pawn formation.

                       1  Q-Kt4          P-QB3
                       2  Q-R3           P-R3
                       3  Q-Kt3          R-Q1
                       4  P-QB4

--in order to prevent the advance of the black QP which has become weak.

                       4  ...            R-Q2
                       5  Q-Q1           Q-K4
                       6  Q-Kt4          K-K1
                       7  Q-K2           K-Q1
                       8  Q-Q2           K-B2

As White has failed to increase his advantage or to find a more or less
direct line of action, Black now shows signs of activity; his King is no
longer content to defend the weaker flank but, intending to assume the
initiative, he wishes to support his strong Q side pawns. He evidently
seeks to obtain a passed pawn there. The problem is how to achieve this
without pawn exchanges with the prospect of remaining with an isolated
pawn. Great caution is required; the pieces will have to work with the
pawns in these operations.

                       9  P-R3           R-K2
                      10  P-QKt4         P-QKt4
                      11  PxP            RPxP

One object at least is achieved: a file is open on which stands a
backward pawn. The King has relieved his pieces from the task of
guarding the QP, and the Queen and the Rook can strike out on a more
enterprising line of play.

                      12  P-Kt3          P-Kt4
                      13  K-Kt2          R-K1
                      14  Q-Q1

White threatens both P-QR4 and Q-R5. We see how much caution is required
in a game of this type; any small advance creates weaknesses in one's
own camp. Thus Black's threat to occupy the QR file is held up and he
must give some thought to his own safety.

                      14  ...            P-B3
                      15  Q-Kt3

White leaves the execution of his threats in abeyance. It is true that,
after 15 Q-R5, Q-K3; is a sufficient defence, but he might at least have
played 15 P-QR4. He evidently prefers a passive defence, in order first
to ascertain his adversary's plans.

                      15  ...            Q-K3
                      16  Q-Q1

He probably thinks that an end game of Q and R affords better chances of
a draw than a simple R ending.

                      16  ...            R-KR1
                      17  P-Kt4

White's K side pawns are paralysed. Black's second object is attained.
He can now proceed with the third stage of his plan: action against the
Q side pawns.

                      17  ...            Q-B5

Thus Black has acquired a dominating position, in which his pieces are
better placed than, and his pawns superior to, his adversary's. White's
QRP in particular is almost negligible. White, clearly thinks so too,
for he tries to eliminate it by a sacrifice in order to regain some
measure of initiative. He should have thought of that before the event.

                      18  P-QR4          QxP
                      19  PxP            QxP
                      20  R-QKt3         Q-R3
                      21  Q-Q4           R-K1
                      22  K-Kt1          R-K4

Black's advantage is clear-cut, and White's attack is not a sufficient
compensation for the loss of a pawn. Black has demonstrated in a
striking manner what can be made of a drawn position. It must be added,
however, that, thanks to some tactical finesse by White and some
tactical errors by his opponent, White ultimately won this game which
might have been a masterpiece for Black.

In more complicated positions and with more pieces on the board, the
balance can be upset more rapidly, more suddenly, and more decisively
than in the preceding example. There may even be an attack, although, as
we have seen, an attack can only be made in a superior position. It
would be more correct to say that the attack should be made where one is
strongest. We attack on the K side with, perhaps, an inferiority on the
Q side. It is even a necessity, when to act otherwise means that the
opponent is allowed full sway. Counter-attack as a means of defence is
of the same type.

The position in Diag. 76 is still in the opening stages. It would be in
order to proceed with a tranquil development. On the contrary, White
commences without delay an aggressive action which forces his opponent
to combine development with defence.


                               DIAGRAM 76

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R | #Kt|    |    | #K | #B | #Kt| #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #P |    |    |    | #P | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #Q | #P |    | #P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^Q |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R | ^Kt| ^B |    | ^K |    | ^Kt| ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Spielmann; _Black:_ Tartakower
                           Match, Vienna, 1913


                       1  P-B5           PxP
                       2  QxP            Kt-K2

Black parries the check at his QB1 by developing a piece.

                       3  Q-B2           Kt-Kt3
                       4  P-KR4

Such attacks without a well-defined object are to be deprecated. They
only weaken the position without any appreciable compensation.

                       4  ...            B-K2
                       5  P-R5           Kt-B1
                       6  Kt-K2          Kt-K3

In consequence of White's attack this Knight is now on a far better
square.

                       7  P-B3           P-QB4

The K side being developed, Black commences an action on the Q side,
which is far more justified than White's aggression on the opposite
wing.

                       8  Kt-B4          KtxKt
                       9  BxKt           PxP
                      10  PxP            Kt-B3
                      11  B-K3           Castles KR

Black's development is completed, whilst White has not yet castled and
one of his Knights is still on its original square.

                      12  P-R6           P-Kt3
                      13  Kt-B3          P-B3

Well played! He now begins an action on the K side, where White's
position is weakened in consequence of his premature attack.

                      14  PxP            RxP
                      15  Q-Q2           B-Kt5

Anticipating White's castling on the Q side--he has no choice--Black
prepares an attack.

                      16  Castles        Kt-R4
                      17  K-Kt1          Kt-B5

And Black has everything to hope for from his well-timed attack. White
has upset the balance to his own disadvantage.

The destruction of the balance can also be caused by a simple
combination which may call, in reply, for a counter-combination by the
other side. Which goes to show that even positions do not of necessity
imply dull and unimaginative play.

In Diag. 77 Black, after eliminating his doubled pawn, is in a
favourable position with "two Bishops" and with both Rooks well
developed. Against this White has the


                               DIAGRAM 77

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #R |    |    | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #B |    |    |    | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | #Q |    |    | #P | #B | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P | ^P |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    |    | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    | ^Q | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B |    | ^R |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Gunsberg; _Black:_ Przepirka
                             San Remo, 1911


outline of an attack, so that the games may be said to be even, with the
odds slightly in favour of Black. It is not, therefore, surprising to
see White embark upon a combination.

                       1  Q-Kt4          P-QR4
                       2  PxP            QxP
                       3  KtxP

This sacrifice brings a little life into a rather colourless position.
The Knight cannot be taken as Black would then lose one of his Bishops.

                       3  ...            RxR
                       4  RxR            P-R4

Both Kt and Q are now _en prise_ and Black threatens ... Q-Q4; attacking
both Knight and Rook and with a threat of mate.

                       5  Q-Kt3          Q-Q7

The Knight is still safe from capture.

                       6  R-KB1          R-B8
                       7  B-Q3           RxR ch_
                       8  BxR            Q-B7

White was threatening Q-Kt8 _ch_.

                       9  Q-Kt8 _ch_     B-B1
                      10  Kt-B7

At last the Kt has moved away, but with a powerful threat.

                      10  ...            B-K4
                      11  QxB _ch_       K-Kt2
                      12  Q-Q7           QxKt
                      13  QxQ            BxQ
                      14  B-Kt5          B-Q3
                      15  BxP            BxRP

And the game is drawn. The struggle has, however,
been keen and lively and White's combination was therefore justified.


                         4. COUNTER-ACTION


The term "even position" conjures up visions of dreary positions,
dragging on interminably in expectation of some minute weakness or some
big blunder. Quite the contrary can be the case, and then we see the art
of chess at its highest. If in unequal positions we have seen
counter-attacks produce play of the most exciting character, what can we
expect when, in even positions, both players, in determined and
whole-hearted fashion, attack each other to the utmost of their power?
We have seen one example of this type and shall now examine one or two
more. Without stopping to analyse positional manoeuvres, with which we
have now become familiar, we shall study cases in which both players
simultaneously turn to direct action. This can happen in two
ways--either the respective attacks may meet at the same point, or they
may develop on opposite flanks. But when the battle rages over the whole
range of the chessboard, what a feast for the spectator, and what an
ordeal for the combatants!

It would not be correct to say that in all such cases the initial
positions are even; only symmetrical positions are entirely even; but we
are now only concerned with the actual struggle, and must overlook
minute differences.

In Diag. 78 Black has a strong, supported, passed pawn. Unfortunately,
it is blocked, and White can attack it as many times as it can be
defended. In this case all the black pieces would be committed to the
passive defence of this pawn, and White could break through with P-QKt4.
That is why it occurs to Black to advance his QBP; the QP is thereby
weakened and White concentrates all his forces against it.


                               DIAGRAM 78

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    | #R | #R |    | #B | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #Kt| #Q | #P |    | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    |    |    |    | #P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | #P | ^P |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^B | ^P |    | ^Kt|    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P |    |    | ^Q |    |    | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^R |    | ^R |    | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                     _White:_ Duras; _Black:_ Cohn
                             Carlsbad, 1911


                       1  ...            Q-R5
                       2  P-Kt3          Q-R4
                       3  K-Kt2          P-B5
                       4  Kt-B4          Q-K4
                       5  BxB            P-B6
                       6  Q-Q3           KtxB
                       7  Kt-Q5

Threatening Kt-K7 _ch_, as well as KR-Q1, and P-B4. Black decides to
force the advance of his pawn by sacrificing the exchange.

                       7  ...            RxKt
                       8  PxR            QxP
                       9  KR-Q1          Kt-K3

Protecting both the QP as well as the QBP, for if White takes the QBP,
then, after the necessary exchanges, P-B7 wins.

                      10  QxRP           R-R1
                      11  Q-K2           P-Q6

With the Rooks threatening to occupy the seventh rank, supported by the
advanced pawns, Black now begins a direct attack against the King.

                      12  RxQP           Q-KKt4
                      13  Q-K3           RxP _ch_
                      14  K-Kt1          Q-KR4
                      15  P-R4           Q-KB4

Threatening ... Q-R6. If 16 P-KKt4, Q-B5; 17 QxQ, KtxQ; with the threat
of ... Kt-K7 _ch_.

                      16  R(Q3)xP        Q-R6
                      17  R-B8 _ch_      K-Kt2

Black, thinking victory in sight, now makes a mistake: with 17 ...
Kt-B1; he would probably have secured the draw. After the text-move,
White manages to assume the offensive, without, however, neglecting his
defence, and so the final combination turns out well for him.

                      18  Q-K5 _ch_      P-B3
                      19  R(B1)-B7 _ch_  K-R3
                      20  Q-K3 _ch_      P-Kt4
                      21  PxP _ch_       KtxP

A little better would be: 21 ... PxP; 22 QxKt _ch_, QxQ; 23 R-B6, and
White has an extra pawn. But he plays for a mate and--loses.

                      22  RxP _ch_       KxR
                      23  Q-K7 _ch_      K-Kt3
                      24  R-Kt8 _ch_     K-B4
                      25  RxKt _ch_

and Black's Queen is lost.

In the next example (Diag. 79) White has a powerful attack against the
King, and as his Bishop is shut in, he tries to free a diagonal for it.
His own King is none too secure, and he must conduct his attack
cautiously and with the greatest precision.

                       1  R-B5           Q-B6

If 1 ... PxR; 2 KtxP _ch_, K-R2; 3 KtxR(R6),


                               DIAGRAM 79

                --------------------------------------- 
               |    |    |    |    | #B |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #R | #P | #K |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | #P |    | #P |    |    | #P | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    | #Kt| ^P | #Q |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^P |    | ^P | ^R |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P |    |    |    |    | ^Kt|    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    |    |    | ^Q | ^P |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    | ^B |    |    |    | ^R | ^K |    |
                --------------------------------------- 

                  _White:_ Duras; _Black:_ Teichmann
                             Ostend, 1906


KxKt; 4 Q-R4 _ch_, K-Kt2; 5 R-B5, etc.

                       2  P-K5           PxP

Compulsory, because of P-K6.

                       3  R-Kt5          K-R2

QB6 _ch_ was threatened.

                       4  Kt-B5          PxKt

--otherwise White would win the exchange. We see that White, by means of
two sacrifices, has opened the diagonal for his Bishop.

                       5  QxP _ch_       R-Kt3

If 5 ... K-R1; 6 R-R5.

                       6  Q-B6           Q-Q5 _ch_
                       7  R-B2           Q-Q8 _ch_
                       8  K-R2           P-K5

By sacrificing the Rook, Black closes the Bishop's line and thus obtains
a little freedom. A sacrifice helps him to pass from the defensive to
the counter-attack.

                       9  QxR            R-R3 _ch_
                      10  K-Kt3          Q-K8

White threatened RxP _ch_. If 10 ... QxP _ch_; 11 R-B3, with the same
threat.

                      11  QxB            Q-K6 _ch_
                      12  K-Kt4

White is not afraid to advance his King, as his attack is more potent
than the enemy's threats.

                      12 ...             P-B4 _ch_
                      13  R(Kt5)xP       R-Kt3 _ch_

Threatening a mate in two, but--

                      14  QxR _ch_

By a fresh sacrifice White at last seizes the initiative which is to
decide the fate of the battle.

                      14  ...            KxQ
                      15  R-B6 _ch_      K-Kt2
                      16  R-B7 _ch_      K-Kt1
                      17  R-B8 _ch_      K-Kt2
                      18  R(B2)-B7 _ch_  K-Kt3
                      19  R-B6 _ch_      K-Kt2
                      20  R(B8)-B7 _ch_  K-Kt1
                      21  K-R5

Excellent play. There is no defence against the threatened mate.

                      21  ...            Q-K7 _ch_
                      22  P-Kt4          Resigns.

A game of chess can be very thrilling when played in this manner!

No less exciting is the following example (Diag. 80). Black, having
sacrificed a pawn in the opening, has a splendid game. His QB, on an
open diagonal, prevents White from castling on the K side. He does his
utmost to prevent him from castling on the other side as well. White,
however, unwilling to submit to a passive defence,


                               DIAGRAM 80

                --------------------------------------- 
               | #R |    | #B |    | #K | #B |    | #R |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    | #Q |    | #P | #P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | #P |    |    | #Kt|    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | #P |    |    | #P |    | ^P |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    |    | ^P | #P |    |    | ^Kt|
               |---------------------------------------|
               |    |    | ^Kt|    |    |    |    |    |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^P | ^P | ^P |    | ^Q | ^P | ^P | ^P |
               |---------------------------------------|
               | ^R |    | ^B |    | ^K |    |    | ^R |
                --------------------------------------- 

                _White:_ Pillsbury; _Black:_ Tarrasch
                           Monte Carlo, 1903


conducts an active game and tries to increase his advantage in material.

                       1  B-Kt5          B-R3
                       2  BxKt           QxB
                       3  Q-R5 _ch_      K-Q2
                       4  Kt-Kt6

Practically forced: his QP is attacked and ... B-K2; attacking the
Knight, is threatened.

                       4  ...            QxQP

Black perseveres with the idea of keeping his King in the centre. His
sacrifice of a Rook is less substantial than it looks, in view of the
fact that both white Rooks are out of play.

                       5  KtxR           B-B4
                       6  Q-R4           RxKt
                       7  R-Q1           Q-Kt5

Threatening ... P-Q5.

                       8  Q-Kt4          K-Q1
                       9  QxKtP          R-K1
                      10  Q-B6 _ch_      K-Q2
                      11  P-QR3

By releasing the Knight he threatens KtxQP, in answer to ... QxKtP.

                      11  ...            Q-Kt3
                      12  R-Q2           P-K6
                      13  PxP            BxKP

In this way Black brings his Rook into the game and, in effect, has an
extra piece. White seeks salvation in an attack.

                      14  KtxP           BxR _db. ch_
                      15  KxB            Q-B7 _ch_
                      16  K-Q1           Q-K7 _ch_
                      17  K-B1           PxKt
                      18  R-Q1

Again, as in the preceding game, White obtains the initiative by
sacrificing a piece. He has two pawns for it and freedom of action.

                      18  ...            P-B3
                      19  Q-R4           QxP
                      20  QxP _ch_       R-K2
                      21  Q-R4           Q-K5
                      22  Q-R8           QxP
                      23  Q-R8           B-B1
                      24  Q-R7 _ch_      K-K1
                      25  QxP            Q-B5 _ch_
                      26  K-Kt1          QxP

And Black wins, having a Bishop for a pawn.

There could be no more fitting conclusion to this book than these
outstandingly beautiful examples of the art of chess.




                              CONCLUSION


Our investigations are at an end; we have touched upon the most
important types of positions and analysed their treatment. We have shown
how to increase an advantage by exploiting enemy weaknesses whilst
safeguarding the position.

The first edition of this book laid particular stress on the objective
basis of our game--the three elements: space, time, and force--and we
still insist on the necessity of giving them the most serious
consideration. For one thing their importance is indisputable and we are
never betrayed in trusting to their validity; in conforming to their
principles we are banking on an unfailing certainty. Their neglect is
the chief fault in the play of the average amateur; by becoming familiar
with these principles he inevitably makes an important step forward in
his playing strength.

But that is not enough. Chess is not a mechanical game; it appeals to
and depends on the intellect. Therefore "ideas in chess" form the most
important as well as the most interesting part of the game. That is why
we play chess. For this reason the major portion of this book is devoted
to "ideas in chess." Using technique as a starting point, we arrive, by
the analysis of each position, at an understanding of its main idea, and
of its distinctive features. This enables us to formulate a strategic
plan. In carrying out this plan we must take advantage of any tactical
possibility which may occur--that is how a chess player should think and
act in the course of every game he plays.

Considerations of space have forced me to follow rather general lines,
without going into all details; these might well be treated in
specialised monographs.

The most important examples given in the first edition have been
retained, but many new ones taken from the very latest tournament
practice have been added with the object of making this study of the
middle game as complete and modern as possible.




                   LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE POSITIONS

Diagram                                                   Page
                       THE ELEMENTS
   1 Study by Rti                                          6
   2 Yates-Marshall                 Carlsbad 1929           7
   3 Collins-Znosko-Borovsky        Paris 1937             26
   4 5 Capablanca-Chajes            New York 1913        31, 32

                       IDEAS IN CHESS
   7 Study by Herbstman             1935                   39
   7A Travin-Zeck                   Leningrad 1933         41
   8 Dr. Tarrasch-Janowski          Ostend 1907            43
   9 Rubinstein-Znosko-Borovsky     St. Petersburg 1909    46

                 STRATEGY AND TACTICS
  10 Leonhardt-Marshall                                    48
  11  Vergani-Teichmann             Hastings 1895          49
  12 Charousek-Schting             Berlin 1897            52
  13  Morphy-McConnell              New Orleans 1849       59
  14, 15 Dr. Lasker-Capablanca      Match 1921           63,67
  16 Rti-Dr. Alekhine              Baden-Baden 1925       68
  17  Dr. Lasker-Showalter          Cambridge Springs 1904 69
  18 Dr. Alekhine-Tylor             Margate 1937           71
  19 Andreiev-Dolookhanow           Leningrad 1935         72
  20 Kostitsch-Znosko-Borovsky      Nice 1930              74

                     THE MIDDLE GAME
  22, 23 Heilmann-Vidmar            Barmen 1905            81
  24, 25 Capablanca-Dr. Alekhine    Nottingham 1936      82,83
  26, 27 Capablanca-Dr. Alekhine    Match 1927             84
  29  Dr. Euwe-Flohr                Match 1932             86
  30,31 Capablanca-Reshevsky        Nottingham 1936      89,90
  32  Botvinnik-Winter              Nottingham 1936        91
  33,34 Capablanca-Dr. Alekhine     Match 1927           92,93

                 SUPERIORITY IN POSITION
  35  Miss Menchik-Znosko-Borovsky  London 1937            94
  36  Marshall-Capablanca           Match 1909             97
  37,38 Nimzowitsch-Capablanca      St. Petersburg 1914 100 103
  39  Dr. Lasker-Capablanca         St. Petersburg 1914    105
  40  Capablanca-Janowski           St. Petersburg 1914    112
  41  Forgacz-Dr. Tartakower        St. Petersburg 1909    116
  42  Dr. Tarrasch-Schlechter       Match 1911             118
  43  Capablanca-Dr. Bernstein      San Sebastian 1911     120


Diagram                                                   Page
              SUPERIORITY IN POSITION-rantd.

  44  Dr. Lasker-Bauer              Amsterdam 1889        122
  45  Spielmann-Rti                Abbazia 1912          122
  46  Capablanca-Marshall           Match 1909            124
  47  Botvinnik-Dr. Tartakower      Nottingham 1936       126
  48  Dr. Alekhine-Levitzki         Vilna 1912            128
  49  Botvinnik-Capablanca          Moscow 1936           132
  50  Dr. Alekhine-Rubinstein       The Hague 1921        135
  51  Botvinnik-Flohr               Moscow 1936           136
  Sz  Tchigorin-Blackburne          Hastings 1895         141
  53  Dr. Tarrasch-Mieses           Gteborg 1920         143
  54  Dr. Euwe-Dr. Alekhine         Match 1935            144

                    INFERIOR POSITIONS

  55  Mieses-Capablanca             Berlin 1913           147
  56  Dr. Tarrasch-Duras            Hamburg 1910          150
  57,58 Capablanca-Znosko-Borovsky  St. Petersburg 1913 152,154
  59  Dr. Alekhine-Dr. Euwe         Match 1937            158
  6o  Khnlein-Dr. Tarrasch         Nuremberg 1907        160
  61  Znosko-Borovsky-Dr. Euwe      Broadstairs 1921      163
  62  Dr. Lasker-Dr. Tarrasch       Match 1908            167
  63  Dr. Lasker-Janowski           Match 1910            169
  64  Dr. Euwe-Dr. Alekhine         Match 1935            172
  65  Colle-Znosko-Borovsky         Nice 1930             174
  66  Dr. Landau-Reshevsky          Kemeri 1937           177
  67  Schlechter-Dr. Lasker         Match 1911            178
  68  Marczy-Dr. Tarrasch          San Sebastian 1911    180


                      EVEN POSITIONS

  70  Dr. Lasker-Marshall           Match 1907            185
  71 72 Pillsbury-Dr. Tarrasch      Hastings 1895      187,193
  73  Riga-Berlin                   Correspondence 1906   197
  74  Rubinstein-Duras              Carlsbad 1911         200
  75  Schlechter-Dr. Lasker         Match 1911            205
  76  Spielmann-Dr. Tartakower      Match 1913            208
  77  Gunsberg-Przepirka           San Remo 1911         210
  78  Duras-E. Cohn                 Carlsbad 1911         213
  79  Duras-Teichmann               Ostend 1906           215
  80  Pillsbury-Dr. Tarrasch        Monte Carlo 1903      217

